eS 


3 


ak Gai 
as: 


¥ 


aks ar 
3 ees 











Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2022 with funding from 
Princeton Theological Seminary Library 


https://archive.org/details/worldslivingreliOOhume_1 


Life and Religion Series 


THE WORLD'S LIVING 
RELIGIONS 


AN HISTORICAL SKETCH 


WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR SACRED SCRIPTURES 
AND IN COMPARISON WITH CHRISTIANITY y 6 69.) o>. 


{ 
f f : 
' APY 
\ > 
\ fh, 
Fe A ei 2 
BY . HN ALP ge @ TRAY 
. vy 


™ is : } 

‘a ee P 
a 

lidtinadh ton te te Sheena 


ROBERT ERNEST HUME, Pu.D. 


PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS, UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 
NEW YORE 


AUTHOR OF “THE THIRTEEN PRINCIPAL UPANISHADS TRANSLATED FROM 
SANSKRIT’ 


NEW YORK 
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 
1924 


Corrriaut, 1924, Br, 
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 





% 


Printed in the United States of America 





: 


PREFACE 


The volumes of this series on life and religion aim to 
furnish the untechnically trained leader with a succinct 


yet trustworthy and satisfying introduction to each 


subject treated. This volume aims to lay a foundation 
on the basis of which a thoughtful reader can reach a 
real understanding of the essential differences between 
the extant religions of the world and an adequate 
knowledge of their origin, literature, history, and values. 

The author has sought to write dispassionately and 
with a discerning appreciation of each religion. He has 
stated clearly the essential facts about each religion, 
basing these statements in every case upon the original 
declarations in its sacred scriptures. He has aimed 
also to formulate the elements of strength and of weak- 
ness in each religion, not excepting Christianity, in such 
a way that an adherent of the faith thus described 
would admit its fairness. ‘The volume thus furnishes a 
means of making an intelligent and friendly comparison 
of any other religion with one’s own. 

Professor Hume has been singularly fitted for this 
task through his varied experiences. Born in India of 
a well-known missionary family, and thus accustomed 
in early boyhood to modes of every-day Hindu thought 
and worship, he gave his years of early manhood to 
active missionary work in western India, resigning from 
that service to accept the professorship of the history 
of religions at Union Theological Seminary, New York 
City. He has maintained intimate relations with 


many of the great religious leaders of India, having 


as recently as 1923 served as exchange professor at the 
Vv 


vi PREFACE 


universities of Bombay and the Punjab, and as lec- 
turer at the Hindu University at Benares and the 
Moslem University at Aligarh. 

His desire to get at the very roots of Hindu belief 
led him to undertake a fresh translation of the Upani- 
shads, a work published in 1921 by the Oxford Uni- 
versity Press, under the title “The Thirteen Principal 
Upanishads.”” During these years Doctor Hume has 
travelled widely, studying each religion in its own home 
and in its active exhibit at the present day. He has 
spared no pains in seeking to present in this volume 
not only the basic facts but also conclusions which 
grow out of a rich and varied experience interpreted 
with the aid of unflagging research and painstaking 
study and teaching. It is not too much to say that 
the result is a volume at once unique among its kind 
and of unusual range and value. It furnishes all the 
varied data which a thoughtful reader or student needs. 

Unnecessary details, however interesting, have been 
rigidly excluded in the interests of a concise and read- 
able volume. The ample references in the appendices 
will enable those who desire to study a particular sub- 
ject more profoundly to do so. Attention is called to 
the questions which conclude the appendix. They will 
fairly test the understanding of the faithful student of 
the book. 

It has been the desire of author and editors alike to 
prepare a volume which may also serve the needs of 
classes or groups which desire to make a real study of 
the living religions of the world. 


Tue EpItors. 
New York City, February, 1924. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
A ConsPECTUS OF THE ELEVEN Livina RELIGIONS OF 
HRW ORLD. 1 Fal le adr ahr eee, eae Es Betipeee ca aeaee x 


AME NTRODUCTION.: co tudoy Sau eae aces oe ee ene e 1 
RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS. 


RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN SOUTH ASIA 
(INDIA) 
LI SeeENDOISM a hig eS ORES ae ae id aro ed 


THE RELIGION OF DIVINE IMMANENCE AND AN 
HEREDITARY GRADED SOCIAL STRUCTURE. 


TDR UA TINTON Ghee Wes hc sp he AOE eae NP RA ih 41 
THE RELIGION OF ASCETICISM. 


HY ED DDEISM ise (ieest ig Bole sake cote ee een 59 


THE RELIGION OF PEACEFUL, ETHICAL SELF-CUL- 
TURE. 


IN PEOUTSCTEISM PetPets eye kt eo Sk eek OTe TORRE fy 83 


’ TBE RELIGION OF DISCIPLES OF THE ONE TRUE 
GOD. 


RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN EAST ASIA 
(CHINA, JAPAN) . 


Ni PRC PONTTIOCTANTISN Cones ee co ec ates DR eons 108 
THE RELIGION OF SOCIAL PROPRIETY. 


BUT DMEMLUAC SISA eR eh se as a) fe. hae ae Neca an 127 
THE RELIGION OF THE DIVINE WAY. 
vil 


Viil CONTENTS 


PAGE 


VIET! SHENTON le SRR ec at 


THE RELIGION OF NATURE-WORSHIP, EMPEROR- 
WORSHIP, AND PURITY. 


RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN WEST ASIA 
(PALESTINE, PERSIA, ARABIA) 


CRUE bape) 4121 Cena mG amc FU NE | aa 
THE RELIGION OF OBEDIENCE TO THE RIGHT- 
EOUS GOD. 
 DBOROASTRIANISM .0 2, Sh) SP ee ee eee 1 OC) 


THE RELIGION OF STRUGGLE ALONG WITH A 
GOOD BUT LIMITED GOD AGAINST THE EVIL 
FORCES INHERENT IN THE WORLD. 


XI. Isnam, on MuHAMMADANISM ........ 212 
THE RELIGION OF SUBMISSION TO THE. WORLD- 
POTENTATE. 
ERAT. DCHRISTIANITY (clo Con 0 eee a ee A 


THE RELIGION OF THE LOVE OF GOD AND LOVE 
OF MAN AS REVEALED IN JESUS CHRIST. 


XIII. A Summary CoMPARISON OF THE Livine RE- 


LIGIONS hoi airs a a eee en ec 
APPENDIX 
BIBLIOGRAPHY!) uk a oe eee 


QUESTIONS FoR REvVIEw........ 296 


eee Ee 


ABBREVIATIONS USED 


‘Buddhism in Translations,’ by H. C. Warren, in Harvard 
Oriental Series. (Cambridge, Mass., 1909.) 

**Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,”’ edited by James 
Hastings, 12 volumes. (1913-1922.) 

“Early Zoroastrianism,” by J. H. Moulton, in Hibbert 
Lectures, Second Series. (London, Williams & Nor- 
gate, 1913.) 

“Shinto, the Ancient Religion of Japan,” by W. G. Aston, 
in eae Ancient and Modern. (London, Constable, 
1910. 

**Sacred Books of the East,” edited by F. Max Miller, 
50 volumes. (Oxford, 1879-1910.) 

“Shinto, the Way of the Gods,” by W. G. Aston. (Long- 
mans, Green, 1905.) 

**'Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.” (London, 
Triibner; Tokio, Maruzen; Shanghai, Kelly & Walsh.) 

“Thirteen Principal Upanishads,” by R. E. Hume. 
(Oxford, 1921.) 

“The Adi Granth, or The Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs, 
Translated from the Original,’ by Ernest Trumpp. 
(London, Triibner, 1877.) 

*Ta0-Teh-King,” the chief sacred scripture of Taoism. 
See page 287. 


IL 
L1é 


SIND aYaH 


-av Ao 
SNOITTIN 
NI 
aad noNn 


CIYOM FHL JO SNOLDITHY ONIAIT NUAGTH FHL FO 


qyueiy 
(ue,ing) 
UBIO yy 


tees 

SOISSPBI) 

eyendiyy 

seulEesy 

aU -YaL oul 

BISIAY 
13-M0IN 

pue ry-f-oy 

yuommeysaT, PIO 

SEPIA 


SxBALdIHOs 


ge | 

Sold} 
-UNOd Ule{sop[ 
PIOM 


ice 


yey PDL 


pel 
bets Ke 


BIpuy pUue BISIOg 
ueder 

BISSNyy 
Ul [VY Spo1s}zzVIG 


eIpu] 


NOILVOOT LNGSdad 


OUIVN, ONL], 


TeV 
pop~oyyey 
Jopuno}j 

IO ‘UdABOFT 
Japunoj 
AOU {9u0U 
ATBULBIIO 
Japuno} 
Aou ‘ou0u 
AT[eUIsIO 
OBL, UL 
epzey 
BInyy 


spo3-o1nye NJ 
yeaoyer 


SnNOLIvA 
IO ‘eulyqeig 


ALIGG 


yeuryy 


peurareyn yy 
qyslayD snsor 


snIONyUos) 


Sqpped 
“BULB{NBYY 


VIIAYP I 
‘BUBUIVYPIeA 
9Z}-08T 
Id4}SBO107 
ouoN 


SOSOT 


ouON 


agaqNnooa 


“a'V 6991 
‘dV OLY 


‘O'd (1 10) & 


‘Oa 189 


‘Dd 008T 


‘O °& 00ST 


aganNnonog 
40 Hild 
uo ALVa 


‘UISITUBpeUIOLe YN Ay 





wUSTTIS 
Uureysy 






AyUBYSIIy 






wIstUvIONyu0D 






= 
~ oe 


WEP PE 






UISIUIBS 
UISIOB T, 

UOIsI[9yY IsiVg 
‘UISIUBIIJSBOIOT 





sed 
uistepne 


wusmpuryy 


JZWYN 


NIOIWO YUGHL JO AAdHO TIVOIDOIONOUHO AHL NI GaDNVUUV 


¥ 


SQLOAdSNOO V 








I 
RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 


1. Religion Universal to Man. 


Religion is the chief differentiating characteristic of 


/man. Some animals may surpass some men in certain 
abilities, such as keenness of sense-perception, prac- 


tical constructiveness, companionability, and economic 
productiveness, but no animal has to human knowledge 
displayed any evidences of religious life, nor has any 
animal ever done anything which might be interpreted 
as a preparation for a life beyond death. Certain 
human individuals do seem to be lacking in religious 
interest, just as they are lacking in the higher mental 


; and moral interests, yet mankind as a whole is uni- 
_versally religious. 


In the history of mankind there never has been a 
tribe of men without some form of religion. Even 


the bushmen of Central Australia and the Indians of 
‘Patagonia, who represent the lowest forms of existent 


human life, cherish some belief in the spirit world and 
engage in some kind of worship. In the oldest monu- 


‘ments of civilized man, as shown in the pyramids of @ 


Egypt and the early Vedic scriptures of India, religious 
convictions, aspirations, and practices are in evidence. 
Religion has been one of the most powerful factors 


in human history. Other aspects of human life have 
‘indeed been important, yet the pre-eminently noble 


characteristic of man throughout his entire history 
has been his religion. He is convinced that he stands 
in certain superhuman relations, and is satisfied that 
he has received needed superhuman help. 

1 é 


Q THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


2. /The Function of Religion. 


‘ 
: 
j 


Religion gives to a person what he can obtain from 


no other source,—a confidence in the outcome of life’s 


struggles through a personal connection with the 


superior Power or powers in the world.’ Every re- 
ligion does many things for the religious individual 
and also usually for society. For example, it assists 
in providing the individual with added power and 
satisfaction; it helps him to bear the troubles of life 
uncomplainingly; it offers a solution of the problem 
of evil; it improves the quality of this present life; it 
offers the hope of a better life in the future; it outlines 
an ideal society; it sets a working plan of salvation. 

The distinguishing function of religion, in contrast 
with that of philosophy or ethics, or any of the ideal- 
izing or cultural activities, is to give to a human being 
the supreme satisfaction of his life through vital rela- 
tionship with what he recognizes as the superhuman 
Power, or powers, in the world. 


3. An Analysis of Religion. 


~ Religion is so simple that any intelligent child, as 


well as an adult, may have a real religious experience. 
Religion is also so inclusive and complex that it needs 
_ to be analyzed, so as to be completely understood and 
fully enjoyed. It may be defined in simple terms as 
that aspect of a person’s experience, including his 
thoughts, feelings, and actions, whereby he endeavors 
to live in relationship with what he deems to be the 
Divine, 7. ¢., the supremely worthful Power control- 
ling in the world. 

From a psychological point of view, religion is partly 


intellectual, partly emotional, and partly an act of the 


will. But religion involves more than merely a sub- 


jective experience. It always has some reference to 


: 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 3 


an object of faith and of worship. What constitutes 
a person’s religion is his belief in some God, or gods, 
and his experience of that God, or gods. What differ- 
-entiates one particular religion from another is the 
kind of deity in which its adherents believe and the 
kind of human experience which appropriately fol- 
lows from that belief. 


4. The Essential Characteristics of a Deity. 


Whatever has become an object of supreme re- 
ligious belief, worship, and experience will be found to 
possess at least five characteristics: 

(1) It is superhuman in character and in power, 
even though in some respects a deity is like unto a 
human being; (2) it is supersensuous or invisible, even 
though in certain aspects the deity may be represented 
in material ways; (3) it is controlling; that is, a deity 
is believed to exercise some rule over the natural 
world and over human welfare and destiny; (4) it is 
responsive to the efforts of the human being who acts 
religiously; (5) it is worshipful or adorable, arousing in 
the human religionist such emotions and actions as awe, 
reverence, trust, obedience, co-operation, or submission. 

Every deity is complex in character, just as every 
worshipper is complex. But every human being who 
is truly religious must have had experience with a 
deity which is believed to possess these five foregoing 
characteristics. 


5. Some Alternatives in the Conception of Deity. 

A deity of some kind is an indispensable feature of 
religion. Nevertheless, a person’s actual conception 
of deity, even with those five characteristics, varies 
greatly. For example: 

(1) As to number, there are some polytheistic re- 


4 THE WORLD'S LIVING RELIGIONS 


ligions with many deities, and there are four mono- 
theistic religions which recognize only one deity. 

(2) As to personality, there are two religions, viz., 
philosophic Hinduism and Taoism, which teach that 
the supreme deity is an impersonal metaphysical 
being or abstract principle, while popular Hinduism 
and popular Taoism, and all the other religions teach 
that deity is personal. 

(3) As to power, Muhammadanism teaches that the 
one supreme personal deity is unlimitedly omnipotent; 
Zoroastrianism teaches that the one personal deity’s 
power is limited from outside himself by an opposing, 
cosmic power; Christianity teaches that the one deity’s 
power is limited by moral responsibility to himself, and 
by moral responsibility to human personalities. | 

(4) As to moral responsibility, Muhammadanism re- 
gards the one supreme personal deity as an arbitrary, 
irresponsible personality; Confucianism and Christi- 
anity insist that the supreme deity is consistently re- 
sponsible. 

(5) As to the chief virtue of deity, Zoroastrianism 
and Confucianism regard deity as supremely just; 
Christianity regards deity as supremely loving. 

A fair comparison of Christianity with the other 
religions of the world may be based upon these im- 
portant contrasts. Christianity is not unique as re- 
gards the first four of these five possible contrasts. 
Yet at each possible alternative Christianity selects 
the more difficult and the higher characteristic. 

The peculiarly unique feature in the Christian con- 
ception of God is that His power, while not meta- 
physically limited by any other power outside Him- 
self, is qualified by the divine characteristic of regard 
for moral personality. A Christian normally thinks 
of God as cherishing redemptive love toward men. 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 5 


6. Varying Emphases in the Conception of Religion. 


Religion is so rich and comprehensive that different 
aspects of it, quite properly, seem important to differ- 
ent temperaments. For example: 

(1) The intellectual emphasis has been expressed by 
Max Miiller: — 


Religion is a mental faculty or disposition, which independent of, 
nay in spite of, sense and reason, enables man to apprehend the 
Infinite under different names and under varying guises. (‘‘In- 
troduction to the Science of Religion,” 1882, 13.) 


(2) The moral emphasis has been expressed in two 
famous historic definitions of religion by Immanuel 
Kant and Matthew Arnold: 


Religion is the recognition of all duties as divine commands. 
(“Critique of Practical Reason,” translated by Abbott, p. 226.) 

Religion is morality touched by emotion. (‘Literature and 
Dogma,” 46.) 


(3) The emotional emphasis has been expressed by 
the great theologian, Schleiermacher: 


The essence of religion is the feeling of absolute dependence. 
(‘Discourses on Religion,’’ chap. 2.) 


(4) The emphasis on worship has been made by 
Allan Menzies: 


Religion is the worship of higher powers from the sense of need. 
(“History of Religion,” 13.) 


(5) An emphasis on self-advantage has been ex- 
pressed by Albert Réville, one of the early modern 
historians of religion: 

Religion rests, above all, upon the need of man to realize an har- 

monious synthesis between his own destiny and the opposing 


influences he meets in the world. (“Religions of Non-Civilized 
Peoples,” 1, 120.) 


6 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


(6) A very favorite modern emphasis is the social 
emphasis, defined thus by Professor Edward Scribner 
Ames: 


Religion is the consciousness of the highest social values. — (“Psy- 
chology of Religious Experience,” vii.) 


(7) Another emphasis, quite different, is the indi- 
vidual emphasis which has been stated with extreme 
precision in a well-known volume by the late Professor 
William James: 

Religion, therefore, as I now ask you arbitrarily to take it, shall 
mean for us the feelings, acts and experiences of individual men 
in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand 


in relation to whatever they may consider the divine. (* Vari- 
eties of Religious Experience,” 31.) 


(8) Religion as the supreme idealizing process is the 
point of view presented by Professor G. W. Stratton: 

Religion is the appreciation of an unseen world, usually an un- 

seen company; and religion is also whatever seems clearly to 

be moving toward such an appreciation, or to be returning 

from it. Or perhaps, it might better be described as man’s 


whole bearing toward what seems to him the Best or Greatest. 
(‘Psychology of the Religious Life,” 343.) 


(9) An emphasis which attempts to include all the 
others is finely expressed by Professor William Adams 
Brown: 


By religion is meant the life of man in his superhuman relations; 
that is, his relation to the power on which he feels himself de- 
pendent, the authority to which he deems himself responsible, 
and the unseen being with whom he is capable of communing. 
In the ideal of religion dependence, responsibility and com- 
munion belong together. (‘‘Christian Theology in Outline,” 29.) 


7. Different Approaches to the Study of Religion. 
Religion is so vast a subject that it cannot be ex- 

hausted by any single kind of investigation. It must 

be studied from many points of view. For example: 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 7 


(1) One important approach is the historical. Along 
with the economic, geographical, political, cultural, and 
other factors which have influenced human history, 
religion too must be studied, particularly because of 
its tendency to organize communities of people around 
a religious faith in a superhuman Power or powers. 

(2) A favorite new approach is psychological, which 
studies religion as a characteristic of man, involving 
his entire equipment of thinking, feeling, and willing. 

(3) Religion must also be studied philosophically, 
as part of the human quest for a knowledge of supreme 
reality. It is differentiated from philosophy, because 
religion is an attempt, not merely to know about, but 
also to live in vital relation with, the Supreme. 

(4) Religion may also be studied as one of man’s 

many social activities, yet only as he endeavors through 
religion tc to produce an ideal social order by means of a 
vital relationship with the Supreme Orderer or orderers__. 
« operating the world. 
_ (5) An especially rich approach is found in litera-. 
_ture,—in all those writings where man has endeavored 
to express in words his ideals and feelings, often seem- 
ingly beyond words, concerning the Supreme Being. 
- Moreover, religion may be studied most advantageously © 
“in the sacred scriptures of each organized religion. — 

(6) The esthetic approach must not be neglected. 
Religion has been one of man’s many methods of ap- 
preciating, expressing, and creating beauty, not only 
through literature, but also through music, sculpture, 
architecture, and all the other arts. This is because 
the Supreme has been regarded specifically as the 
supremely beautiful. 

(7) By an ethical approach religion may be viewed 
as man’s effort to attain unto the supremely good kind 
of life for himself by a vital connection with what he 


8 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


deems the supremely good Power in control of the 
affairs of men. 

(8) The most intimate approach is the personal. 
Every religion offers some specific method whereby a 
‘person may attain unto salvation through proper per- 
sonal relation with the Being or beings in supreme con- 
trol of human life. 

(9) A comparative study of religion, now made 
thoroughly available by scholarly research, should not 
be overlooked. It is very surprising and very profita- 
ble to see the similarities and the differences in the 
beliefs’ which human beings still hold concerning the 
Supreme Being or beings, and the results of such be- 
liefs in the life of the individual and of society. 

It is clear that the study of religion deserves all the 
foregoing approaches, and every possible approach, if 
its abundant significance is fully to be understood. 


8. Sacred Scriptures as a Special Apparatus for 
Studying Religions. 

The most important advance in the understanding 
of religions in recent years has been made through the 
direct study of the sacred scriptures of the various or- 
ganized religions. Most, though not all, of these im- 
portant documents are now available in English trans- 
Jation. ‘These render indispensable aid in solving the 
important problem of deciding what was the true form 
of any one of the eleven living religions in the world. 
For example, in the case of Christianity, how shall a 
person determine whether Greek Christianity or Roman 
Christianity or Protestant Christianity is the proper 
expression of that religion ? 

The teachings of the founder should in each case 
furnish an authoritative norm for all his followers. In 
the course of subsequent history these original prin- 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 9 


ciples have of course been elaborated and applied. 
Yet it is possible and necessary to go back to them by 
means of recent historical and linguistic research. 

The sacred scriptures furnish the only uniform basis 
for reporting the various religions. In every one of 
the eleven living religions of the world the supreme 
seat of authority is located in, or connected with, their 
respective sacred scriptures. These always contain 
the teachings attributed to the original founder, in 
case there was one. 

The difficulty of an accurate understanding of the 
scriptures will always remain a problem in the histori- 
cal and comparative study of religions. To interpret 
worthily one’s own religion is a task requiring much 
linguistic and historical knowledge. ‘To secure a reli- 
able knowledge of the eleven different religions, through 
their sacred scriptures, written in sixteen different lan- 
guages, is a task formidable enough to baffle almost 
any student. 


9. Different Standpoints in Comparing Religions. 

Every student of religion necessarily comes to it 
from some point of view. Sometimes he maintains this 
unconsciously; sometimes inconsistently. But it af- 
fects his interpretation. 

(1) One standpoint is to condemn all religions what- 
soever as being without exception the outcome of 
superstition, bigotry, heredity, or ignorance. This 
position of general depreciation is taken by some per- 
sons who have studied the different religions widely: 

As there are a great many religions, so there are a great many 

limitations. And I propose to define religion as “A sum of 


scruples which impede the free exercise of our faculties.” 
(Reinach, ‘‘Orpheus: A General History of Religions,’’ 3.) 


(2) Another standpoint almost as uncritical con- 


10 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


demns all non-Christian religions. This position is 
taken by some advocates of Christianity, even by those 
who have studied other religions considerably. 


The Christian religion is altogether good. The false systems 
cannot be regarded as progressive steps toward the true. Chris- 
tianity is the absolute religion; that is, it is wholly free from 
error. (Burrell, ‘Religions of the World,” 4.) 


(3) A third standpoint, slightly more historical, con- 
demns all non-biblical religions. It recognizes that 
Christianity is, historically and inextricably, connected 
with Judaism, and that the Christian Bible as a whole 
records one continuous course of religious develop- 
ment. 


All the religions, save Christianity and the religion of Israel, be- 
long to the natural stage. Biblical religion is the only purely 
moral religion. (‘‘Non-Biblical Systems of Religion,’ 199-200.) 


(4) Another common standpoint is to condemn all 
other religions besides one’s own, whichever that may 
be. This is the usual point of view of a person who 
has studied neither the history of other religions nor 
the history of his own faith. This attitude is just as 
common among Hindus as among Christians. 

(5) A standpoint somewhat more charitable, but un- 
discriminating, premises that all religions contain some 
good, perhaps equally, at least enough good for their 
“own followers. This position is typical of Theosophists, 
and also of all individuals who do not believe in any 
propaganda in religion. 


Each religion has its own mission in the world, is suited to the 


nations to whom it is given, and to the type of civilization it 
is to permeate. (Besant, “Four Great Religions,” 8.) 


(6) A last standpoint is that all religions contain 
some good, but unequally; yet the world needs to 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS U1 


choose the very best. This view is held by an in- 
creasing number of intelligent, active, progressive 
Christians, who stand enthusiastically for the great 
missionary movement of the churches. It is also being 
adopted by a few recent advocates of several of the 
non-Christian religions. A striking illustration may 
be cited from an active Hindu writer of to-day: 


In studying Western civilization I have felt that there is something 
wanting. This something India has. If we want to avert all 
future wars, even the possibility of war, we must humbly sit 
on a prayer-rug, instead of always rushing about in motor- 
cars. (Harendranath Maitra, ‘‘Hinduism, the World Ideal,” 


Vil-vVill. 


aw 
rene 


to. Unscientific Classifications of Religions. 


It has been quite common to classify religions in 
ways which are neither scientific nor truly helpful. 

(1) Religions have been classified as true and false. 
This method uses no objective, scientific, or social 
test. It is an individualistic classification, which is 
usually based upon /a person’s ignorance or on his 
sympathies. A religion should be classified in accor- 
dance with an intelligent estimate of its worth. 

(2) A traditional classification of religions is into 
natural and revealed. But these terms are correlative, 
not exclusive. Every religion is partly natural and 
partly revealed. The gaining of truth is a natural and 
normal process, conditioned by the capacity of the 
individual to appropriate truth. It may also be viewed 
as a process of revelation, whereby God gives to the 
individual increasingly clear glimpses of truth. 

(3) A very natural classification is along the line of 
personal choice. Every human being should indeed 
demand from his religion the fullest satisfaction for 
himself. Yet the person who is most fully religious will 
set up a social as well as an individual test for the re- 


12 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


ligion of his choice. The complete test of religion 
should be from a twofold point of view. It should be 
good for others as well as good for himself. A person 
should ask himself and others: ‘‘ Will this religion satisfy 
all mankind as it satisfies me?” 


rz. Various Matter-of-Fact Classifications. 


In passing from the unscientific classifications just, 
noted it will be interesting to consider a number of; 
purely objective classifications which, though valu- 
able, do not rest upon elements of real worth. 

(1) Religions as dead or living. Twelve historical 
religions have passed away: one of Africa, the religion 
of ancient Egypt; two of America, the religions of an- 
cient Peru and Mexico; five of Asia, Mithraism, Man- 
icheism, and the religions of Babylonia, Phoenicia, and 
the Hittites; four of Europe, those of the ancient 
Greeks, of the Romans, and of the early Teutons and 
the Scandinavians. 

The living religions are eleven in number. While 
the size of their following is not an indisputable evi- 
dence of their vitality, yet the following data indicate 
the extent to which these religions are really living. 
Jainism, Shinto, and Zoroastrianism are dying out nu- 
merically. Buddhism, Judaism, Taoism, and Sikhism, 
seem to be relatively quiescent. Confucianism, Hindu- 
\ ism, Muhammadanism, and Christianity are growing 
numerically. 

Even within the same religions there are differences 
of vitality. Thus, Zoroastrianism is dying out in 
Persia, yet is flourishing in India. Buddhism is neither 
increasing nor decreasing in Ceylon, Thibet, and Burma, 
but it is quite active in China and Japan. 

(2) Religions according to their geographical origin. 
Asia was the birthplace of every one of the world’s 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 13 


living religions. They may be grouped, however, as 
follows: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism 
originated in Southern Asia; Confucianism, Taoism, 
and Shinto originated in Eastern Asia; Judaism, Zoro- 
astrianism, Muhammadanism, and Christianity origi- 
nated in Western Asia. 

(3) Religions arranged chronolonienligs according to 
the date of their founder. For the two religions which 
1ad no personal founder, the date assigned is the ap- 
proximate or traditional date of origin. 


Hinduism......... 2000-1500 B. C. (invasion of India). 

OIMIRISIN ont. a viva « 1500-1200 B. C. (approximate date of Moses). 

LTC! Cea a ee a 660 B. C. (first Japanese emperor). 

Zoroastrianism..... 660 B. C. (latest possible date for Zoroaster). 

RSID og oe ose 604 B. C. (nominal founder, Lao-tze). 

PBIORIE SS leis) co's 599 B. C. (nominal founder, Mahavira). 

Buddhism......... 560 B. C. (Buddha’s approximate birth-date). 

Confucianism...... er au (Confucius’s approximate _ birth- 
ate 

Christianity....... 4 He . (Jesus Christ’s approximate birth- 
ate 

Muhammadanism. .570 A. D. (Muhammad’s exact birth-date). 

ea gee eRe Se A 1469 A. D. (Guru Nanak’s exact birth-date). 


It is interesting to note that about the sixth century , 
‘before Christ there was a period of unusual religious — 
creativeness, when six of the world’s living religions 
originated. That same century was a period of great 
importance to Judaism. 

(4) Religions according to the number of their ad- 
herents. Statistics, of course, are difficult to obtain 
and difficult to interpret correctly. Numbers do not 
count as the most vital factor in any religion. How- 
ever, they do serve to indicate a certain general trend. 
In two countries, China and Japan, where three non- 
Christian religions are inextricably intermingled, not 
only in the country at large but even in the same in- 
dividual, the figures assigned to the different religions 


14 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


are only approximate. However, the best available 
figures, compiled from many sources, are given below, 
expressed in round numbers: 


Christianity... .. 2’. 557 millions. 
Confucianism. ..... 250 millions. 
Muhammadanism. .230 millions. 2 < 
Hinduism......... 217 millions. 
Buddhism 320.2), 137 millions. 
RE EOUSINN Sse wachahe c..-0)¢ 43 millions. 
=] 0 ea LAR 16 millions. 
BMIGAISTI hes os aol 11 millions. 
PSEIGINNG fo pesos 3 millions. 
AANISH vb tn eke se 1 million. 
Zoroastrianism..... 1/10 million. 


Christianity has the largest nominal following of any 
of the living religions, indeed more than twice as many 
as any other. However, it must be remembered that 
there exists no method by which those who are truly 
Christians can be enumerated. For example, South 
America is classified as a Christian country, yet its 
population contains large numbers of genuine pagans. 

(5) Religions according to their scope. ‘There ex- 
ist only three religions which aim to be truly universal; 
these, mentioned chronologically, are Buddhism, Chris- 
tianity, and Muhammadanism. The other eight are 
hereditary or national, being satisfied with their own 

following. 

' (6) Religions according to the conception of deity 
_ with which they started. Six were clearly theistic 
in origin: Sikhism, Taoism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, 
Christianity, and Muhammadanism. ‘Two, Jainism and 
Buddhism, started without emphasis on deity. The 
other three, Hinduism, Confucianism, and Shinto,—_ 
grew out of a polytheistic nature-worship. 

(7) Religions according to the number of deities 

recognized at present. Some of the world’s living re- 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 15 


ligions have passed through markedly different the- 
ological phases during the course of their history. 
For example, Judaism reached its belief in one sole 
God of the universe through its absolute loyalty to its 
own righteous God Jehovah, without denying the right 
of other nations to be loyal to their deities. Hinduism 
likewise, passed from a polytheistic nature-worship 
through various phases into a popular polytheistic 
idolatry, even while retaining the philosophic theory 
of one Supreme Being. 

The situation may fairly be summarized as follows: 
Four religions, Sikhism, Judaism, Christianity, and 
Muhammadanism, are strictly monotheistic. One, 
Zoroastrianism, is approximately monotheistic, even 
though its metaphysics is dualistic, and its sacred 
scripture recognizes the worship of many demons. The 
remaining six religions are practically polytheistic. 

(8) Religions according to the personality of their 
founders. ‘There are three different ways in which the 
founders of religions have been significant: as origina- 
tors, as types, and as teachers. Three religions carry 
the personal name of their founder: Confucianism, 
Muhammadanism, and Zoroastrianism. Three re- 
ligions are named from an honorific title of their 
founder. Jainism is so named from Mahavira, having 
been regarded as the “Jina,” the “‘Conqueror.”’ Bud- 
dhism is so named because Gautama, its founder, is 
regarded as “the Buddha,” “‘the Enlightened One.”’ 
Christianity is so named because Jesus is regarded as 
“the Christ,” “the Anointed One.” Four religions 
are named from a principal teaching of the founder: 
Taoism, which means “The (Divine) Way’’; Shinto, 
literally “The Way of the Gods”; Muhammadanism, 
also commonly known as “Islam,” or “Submission”’; 
and Sikhism, the religion of ‘The Disciples.” 


16 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


12. A Classification According to Value and Outlook. 

The best possible classification of religions is on the 
basis of the opportunity and responsibility which each 
provides for the individual, and also for human so- 
ciety at large. 

Each of the eleven living religions in the world does 
make an estimate of the worth of the individual, and 
also of the worth of society. 

All non-Christian religions are concerned chiefly for 
the salvation of the individual, even while they place 
relatively little value on human personality as such. 
Islam might seem to be an exception, in that it does 
have a vigorous missionary programme; but that is 
for the sake of social domination, not for the sake of a 
comprehensive social betterment through co-operative 
service. 

Christianity is the only religion in the world which 
regards each human individual as a child of God the 
Father. And Christianity is the only religion which 
seeks a salvation, both individual and social, by means 
of co-operative service. 


13. Prerequisites for the Study and Comparison of 
Religions. 


All the general methods which have been proven 
useful in other fields are also needed for the study of 
religions. The student of the religions of the world 
needs to use a certain unusual combination of abilities, 
which may be enumerated as follows: 

(1) Scientific accuracy is needed in order to know 
the vast range of facts. The sacred scriptures of each 
religion deserve to be studied with care. Generaliza- 
tions are peculiarly difficult to be made with regard to 
any religion, but they need to be made with exactness. 

(2) Sympathetic appreciation is indispensable for 


RELIGION AND THE RELIGIONS 17 


an understanding of the satisfactions which each par- 
ticular religion gives to its followers. 

(3) Judicial discrimination must be exercised upon 
the different values which the different religions assign 
to the varying experiences and ideals of life. 

(4) Constructive inclusiveness will help to gather 
up all the values which may be found among the re- 
ligions of the world into-a harmonious unity. 

(5) Fearless trust in spiritual worth, wherever found, 
will serve to enhance students’ reverence for the uni- 
versal God of truth and also his respect for the re- 
ligious aspirations of humanity. 

(6) A thoroughly Christian attitude is necessary in 
dealing with the non-Christian religious systems, as well 
as with non-Christian individuals. In the field of re- 
search, as well as in other relationships, the Christian 
will fulfil the New Testament exhortation: “Prove all 
things. Hold fast that which is good” (I Thess. 5 : 21). 

Justin Martyr’s remark still holds true: 


Whatsoever things have been rightly said by all men, are the 
property of us Christians. (2 Apology, 13: 4.) 


A study and comparison of the world’s living re- 
ligions will prove beneficial to the Christian’s own life 
and thought. It should also benefit every person who 
undertakes it conscientiously. 


II 
HINDUISM 


Tur Revicion oF DivinrE IMMANENCE AND AN 
HEREDITARY GRADED SOCIAL STRUCTURE 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 
Hinduism, dating from perhaps 1500 B.C., is the 


oldest_living, organized religion in the world. It is 
also one of the ages, numbering 217,000,000 ad- 
herents in India. Its followers have been increasing 
at the rate of about a million in each decade by natural 
increase of population. Hinduism has been an heredi- 
tary-system, always confined within the land of India. 
Two other missionary religions, Christianity and Islam, 
have been winning an increasing number of converts 
in that land. So the proportion of the Hindu com- 
munity to the total population is actually decreasing. 
Hinduism is unique among the religions of the 
world for its system of caste. There are four_main 
historic castes, whose members must follow their 


hereditary occupation, and must_refrain from marry- 
ing and even from-cating with members of other 
Gites Acranset ti eee subordinate posi- 
ae acy are: Bra cene, the priestly Eu. intellectual 


common. n agriculturists ‘and ¢ artisans; ‘and the “Tow-caste 
Sudras, — _ The process of subdivision has continued un- 
til sixty-four castes now number more than 1,000,000 
members.+—Altogether there are over 2,000 mutually | 
exclusive subcastes in the Hindu system. 


1 Census, 1911,” p. xi. 
18 


HINDUISM 19 


Hinduism is remarkable among the religions of the 
world for the devotio dherents characterized by 
so great a variety and vagueness of their religious be- 
liefs. 


In this country no one has any objection to stating his religion. 
And if all the creeds were clear and definite and mutually ex- 
clusive, there would be no difficulty whatever in the way of 
obtaining an accurate return. ... No one is interested in 
what his neighbor believes, but he is very much interested in 
knowing whether he can eat with him or take water from his 
hands. (‘‘General Report of the Census of India, 1911,’ 113.) 





omni- , 
present Divine Being named Brahma. Yet this pan- 
theisin 1s not to be found in the four Vedas and the 
Brahmanas, which are the two earliest groups among 
Hinduism’s sacred scriptures. As a matter of fact, 
orthodox Hindus have believed in every kind of theism, 
polytheism, and_pantheism...They have worshipped ~ 
any object which they prefer, or virtually none. “They 
have followed any standard of morality, or almost none. 
Yet they have been recognized as Hindus in good an 
regular standing, so long as they have not-flagrantly 
violated the rules of caste and for that offense been 
outcasted. OP Rs oe es, 
Hinduism is the complex gradual growth of a very 
religiously minded people with many different tem- 


peraments. It has been diversified, yet unified, by its 

theoretical bélief in one immanent, all-inclusive, all- 
eee (Ene, 

sanctifying World Soul, and by its practical social 

control through caste. Hinduism has developed at 

least six different types of religion, which have been 


embodied in successive sets of documents. These to- 
gether constitute the sacred scriptures of Hinduism. 


They are all written in the Sanskrit language, which is 
the mother of all the modern Indo-European languages. 


Hinduism may be known comprehensively and au- 





cd 


20 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


thoritatively from a survey of its historic documentary 
sources. 


2. Early Nature-Worship: The Four Vedas (before 
1000 B. C.). f 

The name for all the sacred scriptures of Hinduism 
inclusively is “The Vedas,” meaning “(Books of) 
Knowledge.” Different schools in Hinduism have 
their special Vedas. The four earliest are: ““The Veda 
of Verses, or Psalms,”’ Rig Veda; “The Veda of Sacred 
Formulas,’ Yajur Veda; “The Veda of Chants,” Sama 
Veda; and “The Veda of Charms,” Atharva Veda. 
The first of these four is the most important. Indeed, 
the Rig Veda is the oldest document among the world’s 
living religions. Later sacred scriptures and the usual 
orthodox theory in Hinduism represent the Rig Veda 
as having been created before the world. The dates 
assigned by European scholars vary from 2,000 B. C. 
to 1,000 B.C. The wig Veda 1s 2 collection of 1,028 
lyrics, about five times as long as the Hebrew Psalter. 
The Hindus think that the Rig Veda is verbally and 
unerringly authoritative. And they have succeeded 
in transmitting the Sanskrit text so that it now has 
fewer variant readings than exist in the present He- 
brew text of the Old Testament and the Greek text 
of the New Testament. One of the verses in the Rig 
Veda, the famous Gayatewhich is at least a thousand 
years older than Christianity, is still used by orthodox 
high-caste Hindus as a daily morning prayer to the sun: 


Let us meditate upon the adorable 
Glory of the Divine Vivifier! 
And may He direct our thoughts! (Rig Veda, 3: 62. 10.) 


The type of religion which is found in these earliest 


documents of Hinduism is mostly nature-worship 
an ae enaemeeee e ee ey 


e 
ahaa oy 





HINDUISM 21 


The Rig Veda contains prayers and praises addressed 
to some forty-two different objects, mostly personal- 
ized objects or powers in nature; for example, sun, 
moon, sky, wind, rain, dawn, earth, air, fire, ete. 
The most important of the Vedic deities is Indra,* 
regent of the atmosphere and the rain. The desires 
expressed in the prayers to these early Hindu deities 
are mostly for long life, sons, cattle, good crops, free- 
dom from disease, success over enemies, and general 
worldly prosperity. Yet those _ early documents of 
India, more than a thousand years ee Christ, con- 
tain also some noble pel cubienliadens One cn ine toa 








sky-gods is designated Dyaus Pitar, meaning “ Heaven- 
Father.” 


Heaven is my Father, Progenitor! 
There is my origin. (Rig Veda, 1: 164. 33.) 


Yet the idea of fatherhood connected with Dyaus 
Pitar is almost that of physical paternity, this male 
deity being coupled regularly with a female deity, 
Prithivi Matar, “‘ Earth-Mother.”’ 

The most _highly-ethicat of the various Vedic deities 
is Vgruna, the encompassing *“Heaven.”’ Perhaps the 
most beautiful hymn in all the four Vedas is a psalm 
on the omnipresence and omniscience of Heaven 
(Atharva Veda, 4:16). It contains a remarkable 
parallel to Psalm 139: 7-10, yet it ends with an im- 
precation on an enemy. Varuna and practically all 
of the Vedic deities have passed away in later Hinduism, 
yet the primitive worship and dread of the powers in 
nature still continues in Hinduism. 

There is one, and only one, mention in the Rig 
Veda of the four castes of Hinduism. In this earliest 
document of Hinduism, perhaps 3,000 years old, the 
four main groups in human society represent the suc- 


y 


22 'THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


cessively lower organs, or functions, of the primeval 
person: 


His mouth became the Brahman. 

His arms became the Kshatriya. 

His thighs are the Vaisya. 

The Sudra was produced from his feet. (Rig Veda, 10:90. 12.) 


The chief method of salvation in the Rig Veda is 


el 


3. Priestly Hinduism: The ‘Brahmanas (1000-800 
B. C.). 

The first great war of the Hindus at the original in- 
vasion into India had been accompanied by much 
prayer and personal sacrifice. The continuance of 
these processes was stressed, but in a formal perfunc- 
tory manner. ‘The particular interpretation which was 
put upon the early military and religious success re- 
sulted in a distinct hardening of religion. The rela- 
tively simple Vedic religion was transformed in this 
period of Hinduism into a system of strict domination, 
elaborate ceremonies, various material offerings, and 
even bloody animal sacrifices, all under the control of 
the Brahman priests. 

A new type of literature as well as religion arose. 


. The Brahmanas, meaning “ Prjestlies,” are a group of 


extensive prose treatises on religion. They contain 
chiefly directions for various prescribed sacrifices and 
some religious legends. In the literature of the world 
these Hindu Brahmanas are the earliest Indo-European 


prose writings now extant. 


The special emphasis in the Brahmanas is on the 
sac 


Assuredly the sun would not rise, if the price did not make sacri- 
fice. (SBE, 12: 328.) 


The most important and elaborate is the Asva- 


HINDUISM 93 


medha (horse-sacrifice), which occupies a whole year 
for its completion. — Tts mere beginning involves the 
slaying of 609 animals in a certain prescribed succes- 
sion (SBE, 44:311). The mere performance has un- 
limited saving efficacy. 

Whosoever performs the Asva-medha sacrifice, obtains all his 

desires, and attains all attainments. (SBE, 44 : 347.) 
This is the atonement for everything, the remedy for everything. 


He who performs the Asva-medha, redeems all sin. (SBE, 44: 
328.) 


As the sacrifice performed by hired priests was con- 
sidered the most important act_in religion, so the old 
Vedic deities became less important. They were de- 
-clared to have been mortal, and to have attained im- 
mortality through sacrifices (SBE, 43 : 356-357). In+ 
deed, the Brahman, priests, who knew the ritual, were 
elevated toa oSition ona Tevel with the deities. No. 
other sacred scriptures of the world can parallel the! 
claim made in these “‘Priestlies”’ of Hinduism, that a! 
petgon’s salvation depends upon paying fees to offici- 
ating priests. 

Certain Innovations also were made in the Brah- . 
manas which have continued into all subsequent Hin- 
duism. In stressing Hinduism’s graded caste system 
with its topmost layer of priests, the low-caste Sudra 
is still further demeaned. Neither gods nor Brah- 
mans now speak to that caste (SBE, 26:4). For the 
first time in Hinduism restrictions are placed on eat- 
ing beef (SBE, 26:11), and on a wife’s eating along 
with her husband (SBE, 12 : 259; 43 : 369-370). And 


the idea of reincarnation is first clearly stated _in_ the 
Brahmanas (OBE, 26: 11; 43 : 358). 

However, the special type of religion which was de- 
veloped in the “tabs was sacerdotalism. And 


that type a permanent place in Hinduism 


24 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 
during all its subsequent 2,700 years. Salvation, ac- 


_ cording to the Brahmanas, is to be obtained chiefly 
/through sacrifice performed by the Brahman priests. 
4. Phiiosophic Hinduism: The Upanishads (800-600 
Fondness for philosophic speculation has always 
been a charatteristic of the Hindus. This trait began: 
to manifest itself in some remarkable speculations 
about the origin of the universe, even in the early 
documents (Rig Veda, 10 : 72; 10: 81; 10: 121; 10: 129; 
Atharva Veda, 10:2;10:7). But it became dominant 
in the third set of sacred scriptures, the Upanishads, 
*“Séances,’’ where youths and even women display in- 
terest in philosophic discussion. 
The Upanishads represent almost a new type of re- 
ligion, which cetities ii The Concept” Bramias™ In 
the Vedas and Brahmanas that word had~ meant 


39 ¢¢ 





aan en 





“prayer,” ‘sacred utterance,” or “sacred knowledge.” 
But in the Upanishads the word is used to designate 
the ope. eme Being. The Vedic deities are frankly 
represented as having been unaware of Brahma (Hume, 
“Thirteen Principal Upanishads,” 337-339). The 
course of philosophic thought in the Upanishads them- 
selves passed through phases, which may be briefly 
formulated and illustrated. 
|, All the Vedic deities, indeed all things and all events, 
' pre to be regarded as manifestations of one Power at 
j he heart of the world. In the language of traditional — 
‘Teligion, that “It”? may be called the power of prayer 
(brahma). But philosophically Brahma is to be in- 
terpreted as the absolute, infinite, eternal, omnipresent, 
. impersonal, indescribable, neuter Being. It may—also 
e designated as spirit (atman), a world’ soul, into which 
the individual human spirit is also to be merged. The 





HINDUISM 25 


most frequently quoted single sentence from the 
Upanishads is: 


That Soul! That art thou! (Nine times repeated in the Chan- 
dogya Upanishad; Hume, TPU, 246-250; SBE, 1: 101-108.) 


: 
. 





_ This knowledge is frankly presented as superseding 

_ the Vedic polytheism. 

Whoever thus knows “‘I am Brahma!” becomes this All. Even 
the gods have not power to prevent his becoming thus, for he 


becomes their soul (self, atman). (Hume, TPU, 83-84; SBE, 
15 : 88.) 


In contrast with the one infinite abiding Reality the 


manifold world with all its changing finite phenomena “* 
must be regarded as a dream or an illusion (maya). 


‘Theoretically; then, salvalion_is_simply a quiet un- 
ll 





striving r 
changes, even from transmigration, and as completely 


absorbed_in Brahma-Atman. 

Practically, however, the way of knowledge may be 
supplemented by the Yoga method of inducing trance- 
consciousness or trans-consciousness. Quiet suppres- 
sion of all sense activity, even of breathing, may be 
made to promote breathless contemplation on the in- 
effable, eternal, absolutely inactive, indescribably bliss- 
ful Brahma, which is already immanent within one’s 
own heart. 

KEthically there are no distinctions whatsoever, either 

f right or of wrong, either of good or evil, because 
{this religion puts the individual immediately into one- 

ness with the serene, supernatural, almost incompre- 

hensible, impersonal Supreme Being. (Hume, TPU, 
4136, 143-144, 169, 276-277, 299-300.) | 

Such a one, verily, the thought does not torment: ‘‘Why have I 

not done the good?” ‘“‘Why have I done the evil?’”’ He who, 


knows this, saves himself from both these thoughts. For truly, 
from both of these he saves himself,—he who knows this. 


26 THE WORLD'S LIVING RELIGIONS 


This is the Upanishad mystic doctrine. (Hume, TPU, 289; 
SBE, 15 : 63.) 


Hinduism in the Upanishads still retains the four- 
fold caste system as aboriginally created, though now 
from Brahma (Hume, TPU, 84-85). But salvation 
according to the Upanishads is to be obtained chiefly 


y through own philosophic garners upon a 
pantheistic Supreme I deing. a 


eae 


5. Legalistic Hinduism: The Laws of Manu (about 
250 B. C.). 

Hinduism had been presented attractively to three 
different human temperaments by the Rig Veda, the 
Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. ‘These three suc- 
cessive sets of documents had interpreted religion as 
being chiefly an affair of prayer, of sacrifices, and of 
philosophic speculation fespectirely But Hinduism 
has continued to be an effective force in the lives of 
‘its followers because about 2,100 years ago it was 
elaborated as a compulsory social institution, with 
some detailed commandments—and—prohibitions for 
_ daily living through all the stages of life. 

The Law-Book of Manu is the most highly revered 
and influential among several codes of Hindu law. It 
has been estimated by the late professor of Sanskrit at 
Oxford University, as “one of the most remarkable 
books that the literature of the whole world can offer, 
and some of its moral precepts are worthy of Christi- 
anity itself’? (Sir Monier-Williams, “‘Hinduism,” 54; 
“Indian Wisdom,” 204). Its twelve chapters do 


contain some wise maxims; for example: respectful 
obedience to parents and teachers (2: 225-229); re- 


pentance and confession (11 : 228-231); fulfilling troth 


(9:99); reverential eating (2: 54-56); unresentful pa- 
tient endurance of evil: | 


HINDUISM Q7 


Let him patiently bear hard words. Let him not insult anybody. 
Against an angry man let him not in return show anger. Let 
him bless when he is cursed. (6 : 47-48.) 


However, as a whole, Manu is unmistakably a 
Hindu document. It teaches the sacredness and sav- 
ing efficacy of the Vedas (2: 14-15, 107-113, 156; 
11 : 246, 257, 262-264; 12:94 —107), the Seadigyavicneis 
of Hindu sacrifices (3 : 69-81; 4: 25-28; 11: 261), the 
sanctioning of war (7: 87-201), Upanishadic knowl- 
edge of Brahma-Atman (6: 29, 79; 11: 263; 12 : 123- 
125), and final release from transmigration Q: 249). 

The fourfold caste system has been presented in 
Manu with great elaboration. With their respective - 

occupations they were a primeval divine creation “for 
the prosperity of the world” (1:31, 87-93; 10:45; 
11 : 236). The Brahman by the mere fact of his birth 
as the supreme incarnation of deity has been placed in 
a position of permanent paramountcy (1 : 93-100; 9: 
317-319; 11:35). The low-caste has been placed in 
a corresponding position of permanent, even economic, 
inferiority (2:39, 103; 4:61, 79-81; 8: 413-417; 9: 
334-335; 10 : 51-56, 121-125, 129; 11:13). 

Some noticeable innovations in Hinduism were made 
in Manu, particularly the mapping out of four stages 
(asramas) in the life of the perfect religionist: a youth- 
ful student (2 : 69-246), a married householder (3: 1 
5, 169), a retired hermit (6: 1-32), and finally a re 
ligious mendicant (6:33-97). Temples and templ 
priests are first mentioned in the sacred scriptures o 
Hinduism in this document (3: 152, 180; 8: 248; 9 
280, 285). Idols are first clearly referred to in Manu 
(9: 285) along with some other, vaguer but probable 
allusions (4: 39, 130, 153; 7:54; 8:87). Allowed and 
forbidden foods are listed (5:11, 17). Offenses and 
penances are first put into graded lists (11 : 49-266). 


28 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Wife-beating is allowed under certain limitations (8: 
299-300). All modern innovations contrary to the 
Vedas are condemned as false and worthless (12 : 95-96). 

Salvation in Manu_is_to be obtained chiefythrough 


obedience to law, particularly the law of caste. 





6. Devotional Hinduism: The Bhagavad Gita (about 
1 A. D.). 


Among the many sacred scriptures of Hinduism the 
one which has been most highly esteemed by Hindus 
themselves, and also by outsiders, is the Bhagavad 
Gita. It was the first one to be translated into English 
in 1785 A. D., by Charles Wilkins, one of the earliest 
English Sanskritists, with an introduction by Warren 
Hastings. The translation by Sir Edwin Arnold, under 
the title “The Song Celestial,’ was made “because 
English literature would be the poorer without it”’; 
this has been included in the Harvard classics. This 
favorite Hindu sacred scripture has been rendered into 
English by more than a dozen other translators. 

The Bhagavad Gita is a dramatic poem which starts 
with a stirring scene at the beginning of a battle. A 
Hindu knight, Arjuna, for the first time in the recorded 
history of Hinduism, raises the question of the pro- 
priety of killing people in war (1: 28-45; 2:4-8). 
His charioteer allays his conscientious compunctions 
by a remarkable discourse on the immortality and 
irresponsibility of the soul, which proceeds with a 
quotation from the Katha Upanishad (2 : 18-19). 

It slays not, and it is not slain. It is never born, and it never 

dies. Weapons cleave it not, nor does the fire burn it. The 


waters wet it not, nor do the winds dry it up. Wherefore, know- 
ing it to be such, thou oughtest not to grieve for it. (2: 19-25.) 


Thus the practical duty of the knight as a member 
of the second caste remains unchanged. 


HINDUISM 29 


To a Kshatriya warrior nothing is better than a lawful fight. If 
thou wilt not undertake this lawful fight, then by abandoning 
thy proper duty and thy honor, thou wilt be guilty of a crime. 
(2: 31, 33.) ’ 

The chief speaker in the Bhagavad Gita proves to 

be the deity Krishna, in the form of the charioteer. 
Hinduism here has undergone another very remark- 
able transformation when it represents the supreme 
deity in the form of one particular man. Krishna de- 
clares that he became incarnate 


for the protection of good men, for the destruction of evil- 
doers, for the re-establishment of piety. (4:8.) 


Whoever worships Krishna with utter devotion 
(bhakti) 


dwells in Me, whatever be his course of life. (6: 31.) 

They who worship me devoutly, are in Me; and I also am in them. 
Be well assured that he who worships Me, does not perish. 
(9 : 29, 31.) 


Very remarkable in Hinduism is the offer in the 
Bhagavad Gita_of univer 
36; 9 : 30), even to women and low-caste Sudras (9 : 32). 
However, the Bhagavad Gita reaffirms this main 
feature of historic and orthodox Hinduism when it 
describes the inherent, unchangeable nature and func- 
tion of the four castes almost in the words of Manu: 
The office of a Kshatriya, born of his proper nature, is heroism, 
energy, firmness, skill, resolution in battle, liberality, and a 
ruler’s bearing. The ‘office of a Vaisya, born of his proper 
nature, is agriculture, tending of cattle, and commerce. The 


essential office of a Sudra, born of his proper nature, is servi- 
tude. (18 : 43-44.) 


Indeed, the new deity of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna, 
declares: 


The four castes were created by me. (4: 13.) 


Other continuities of Hinduism in the Bhagavad 


30 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Gita are reverence for the Vedas (2:4), and the ter- 
mination of reincarnation or transmigration as being 
the greatly desired goal (4:9). 

The main feature of the Bhagavad Gita is the new 
formulation of religion in terms of devotion. ‘This 
supplements, rather than supplants, traditional Hindu- 
ism. The practical message of the Bhagavad Gita may 

X \be paraphrased in simple language: “‘ Do your caste duty, 
nd trust your God for the rest for your salvation.” 

Salvation, according to the Bhagavad Gita, is to be 

< pbtained chiefly through personal devotion to a per- 
onal deity. Tray, | 


. Popular Hinduism: The Epics and Puranas (1-250 
A. D.). 

The main structure of Hinduism seems to have been 
completed before the time of Christ, although the popu- 
larizing of Hinduism has continued, and although cer- 
tain. new sects have arisen within the Christian era. 
The final literary product among the sacred scriptures 
of Hinduism, and also the most effective literary agency 
for the popularizing of Hinduism were the two great 
epics, the Mahabharata, or “The Great Bharata 
War,” and the Ramayana, or “The Career of the God 
Rama,” and also eighteen Puranas, or collections of 
religious stories, literally “Ancient Tales.” | 

Popular Hinduism is a vast conglomerate of all the 
features which have been enumerated in the sacred 
scriptures; it contains also other features, among which 
the following are important. 

Caste rules prevent a Hindu from eating, marrying, 
and all intimate dealings with persons who belong to 
the other main castes, or even to other subcastes, of his 

' own main caste. 
Sects are numerous in Hinduism. The chief two 


HINDUISM 


worship the deities Vishnu, the Creator, and Siva. 
Destroyer. There are at least fifty-nine subsects 
denominations, representing widely different religious 
types, both philosophical and practical. But they all 
worship some personal deity. Their characteristics dif- 
fer from salvation by faith among the Bhakta schools to 
sensual and cruel practices among the Vallabhacharyas 
and the worshippers of Kali, the black goddess of death. 

Idolatry is abundantly manifest throughout Hindu 
India. It is directed toward all kinds of human and 
animal representations, and even to images of the male 
and female sexual organs. 

- Popular Hinduism has innumerable temples and 
hrines, large and small, for the worship of local as 

ell as general deities. The devotions here are chiefly 
ndividual, often with offerings made to the images of 
he deity and to the attendant priests. Worship of 
the idol often includes circumambulation, always keep- 
ing it to the right. 

' Sacred places, seasons, and festivals are prominent 
popular Hinduism. Devotees in large numbers 

ake pilgrimages to various holy rivers, mountains, 

ities and temples all over India. They observe holy 
je feasts, and gala celebrations in the lunar and 
olar cycles. The sowing of seed and the harvesting of 
crops and other activities in agriculture are connected 
with religious ceremonies. 

Popular Hinduism has been brought intimately into 
home life through prescribed observances for meals, 
birth, marriage, death, funeral, and recurring offerings 
for the dead. There are numerous ceremonial bath- 
ings and purifications. Every adolescent boy in the 
three upper castes 1s invested sacramentally with a 
three-ply sacred thread, which is never removed from 


his body. 


} 


«1 WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


-pular Hinduism connects itself closely with eating 

.d drinking. A strict vegetarian and non-intoxicat- 
ing menu is prescribed for the higher castes. Water 
must not be taken from the defiling hands of any low- 
caste person. 7 | 

The low-caste Hindus are regarded as “untouch- 
ables.” They are excluded. from the regular temples 
and from all social intercourse except menial servitude. 
Their religion is practically animism. 

Many animistic traits prevail in popular Hinduism, 
even among the higher castes, such as the fear of evil 
spirits and of eclipses, a belief in astrology, in horo- 
scopes, curses, the evil eye, and charms. 


8. The Essentials of Hinduism. 


Amid the unequalled variety of religious belief and 
practice which has prevailed in Hinduism, caste is the 
ionly feature which has been present through all its 
/historical phases and successive scriptures. Yet some 
/modern Hindu reformers are attempting to reject 
caste, or at least to reform it. 

Reverence for the Vedas is another important 
feature which has prevailed throughout Hinduism 
subsequent to the first Vedic period. Yet very few 
Hindus possess personal acquaintance with their re- 
vered scriptures. 

The fundamental theological belief is in one imma- 
nent, all-inclusive Being or Spirit, Brahma. Yet this 
belief was not present in Hinduism’s first two stages 
and sets of sacred scriptures. 


Karma and transmigration are two other beliefs 


which probably all Hindus believe. Yet these were 


not taught in the beginning of Hinduism, and are quite 
independent of the theological belief in Brahma. 


HINDUISM 33 


g. Attempted Reforms of Hinduism (557 B. C.—1917 
A. D.). 

During more than half of its entire history Hin- 
duism has had conscious protests and endeavors for 
improvement. But for the most part these have been 
ineffective. 

Mahavira, the son of a Hindu rajah, in 557 B.C., 


started a movement against the following features of 


Hinduism: the domineering exclusiveness of the Brah- 
man priests; the claimed authority of the Sanskrit 
Vedas; the cruel system_of bloody animal sacrifices; 


and the absolute monism of the current. Upanishad 
philosophy, “But the immediate result of Mahavira’s 
effort was the starting of another religion, Jainism 
Gautama—Buddha,—another Hindu prince, in 548 
B.C., started a movement which protested against 
the following features of Hinduism: the whole un- 
ethical system of fixed hereditary castes; dependence 
for salvation upon paid Seer ae Da Ba Ie tates: 
excessive speculativeness, ceremonialism, and emotion- 
alism; and the sacred scriptures in an unintelligible an- 


cient language. This move ed_in the estab- 


lishment of the second personally founded religion in 
India, Buddhism. _. 


Tiruvalluvar, a low-caste Hindu, some time after 
800, preached a salvation which is available only by « 
the grace of God. His “Sacred Kurral”’ is one of the 
most influential poems in the Tamil language of south 
India. “The Jains claim him as their own” (Pope, 
“The Sacred Kurral,’’ 189). 

Manikka-Vasagar, another low-caste Hindu of south . 
India, in the eleventh century, taught: one supreme 
personal God; His incarnation in Shiva; salvation as a 
gracious divine gift; and a conscious immortality after 
death. His “Tiruvasagam”’ (“‘Sacred Utterances’’), 


384 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


is generally regarded as the most beautiful Hindu poem 
in the Tamil language. 

Ramanuja, a Brahman of the Chingleput District 
in the Madras Presidency, about the beginning of the 
twelfth century, started the “Qualified Non-duality 
School,” Visishtadvaita. He was an extensive com- 
mentator on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and 
later Hindu philosophic works. But he was also a 
remarkable popular preacher, who taught that the 
Supreme Being must be personal. He preached to all 
classes of people freely, organized a missionary propa- 
ganda, endeavored to overcome caste exclusiveness, 
and strove for the uplift of women. The principal of 
the Serampore Christian College ventures to predict: 


When an Indian Christian theologian will seek to give an ade- 
quate expression to the philosophy of the Christian religion 
from an Indian point of view, he will receive much inspiration 
and derive considerable help from the religious philosophy of 
the mystic Ramanuja. (Howells, “The Soul of India,” 368.) 


Madhava, or Anandatirtha (1119-1199), a Brahman 
from the Kanara District in southwest India, was the 
founder of the “Duality School,” Dvaita. He was a 
travelling preacher of theism, protesting against bloody 
animal sacrifices. He taught salvation through a 
‘moral knowledge of the divine excellence, which de- 
veloped a separate sect. 


The pretended identity of God and the soul, contained in the 
famous words, “That art thou,” he calls mere babbling from 
ignorance. However, in most respects the sect has relapsed 
into the ordinary corruptions of the orthodox Hinduism around 
them. (Howells, “Soul of India,” 370-372.) 


Ramananda, in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
turies, emphasized that salvation comes primarily 
through divine grace (prasada), even as had been inti- 
mated in the Upanishads (Hume, TPU, 350, 402, 411). 


HINDUISM 35 


His motto was: *‘ Let no one ask a man’s caste or sect. 
Whoever adores God, he is God’s alone.”’ 


He preached the gospel of Rama’s boundless love fer men of 
every race, order or creed. The sect is still numerous in north- 
ern India, chiefly among the poorer classes. Caste has re- 
asserted its power over them, but the ideal remains. (Howells, 
“Soul of India,” 374.) 


There has been sharp controversy between the wor- 
shippers of the Hindu deity Rama. The North School 
(Vada-galais) teaches the cat doctrine, that divine 
grace is irresistible, even as a mother cat of her own 


will carries a little kitten away from danger. The ~ 


South School (7en-galais) teaches the monkey doctrine, 
_ that the human will must co-operate with divine grace, 
even as a little monkey must hold onto its mother in 
order to be carried safely out of danger. (Hopkins, 
“Religions of India,’ 500-501; Macnicol, “Indian 
Theism,” 110; we “Soul of diate a 368.) 
Punjab, under the nines of ara preached one 
God for both Hindus and Moslems. But the result 
was the starting of a third altogether separate religion 
in India, Sikhism, treated under Chapter V. 

Chaitanya (1485- —1527), a worshipper of Vishnu, was 
a musical revivalist in Bengal, who preached the 
equality of all castes before deity, salvation by sing- 
ing and emotional devotion, and relaxation of the 
Hindu restriction against widow remarriage. But 
sensual excesses have appeared among his followers. 

Kabir (1488-1512) was a Hindu poet of a kindly 
theism. Some of his poems have been incorporated 
in the sacred scriptures of Sikhism. But the immediate 
result was the addition of another Hindu sect, the 
Kabir Panth. 

Tulsi Das (1532-1632), the greatest poet of medizeval 


36 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


India, popularized the Sanskrit Ramayana in the Hindu 
vernacular. He was a distinct theist, who taught that 
“by abandoning himself to utter loving faith in Rama’s 
- power to save him from its thraldom, a man can escape 
from the weary round of perpetual transmigration.” 
(Hastings, ERE, 12: 472.) 

Dadu (about 1600), a cotton-spinner, preached theism 
and incarnation. But the result was the formation of 
another sect, which now worships him. 

Ram Mohun Roy, a Bengal Brahman, was the first 
Hindu to translate some of the Upanishads into Eng- 
lish. He also published a collection of quotations from 
the New Testament under the title “The Precepts of 
Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness.” In 1828 
A. D. he started the Brahma Samaj as a protest against 
the following features of Hinduism: idolatry and poly- 
theism; widow-burning, enforced widowhood, and 
polygamy; the strictness of the caste system; national 
and religious isolation; restrictions on the common peo- 
ple. The Brahma Samaj is notable as the first attempt 
to reform Hinduism as the result of a knowledge of 
» Christianity, but it has become internally divided and 
feeble. 

Doctor Atmaram Pandurang, in 1867 A. D., started 
in Bombay the Prarthana Samaj, “Prayer Congrega- 
tion,” for a more personal religious life and for some 
social reform. It has had some notable subsequent 
leaders, but it has remained small and select. Daya- 
nand Saraswati, in 1875, started the Arya Samaj (Con- 
gregation of the Noble), as a protest against idolatry. 
Otherwise it has stressed the importance and infalli- 
bility of the Vedas. Harendranath Maitra, in 1916, 
published “‘ Hinduism, the World Ideal.’’ G.B. Vaidya, 
in 1917, in Bombay, started the Hindu Missionary 
Society as an avowed repudiation of traditional Hindu 


HINDUISM 37 


exclusiveness, and in conscious imitation of successful 
Christian propaganda. Its slogan was: “To make the 
whole world Hindu.” But it has remained a small 
movement, especially since the death of the founder. 


10. A Comparison between Hinduism and Christi- 
anity. 

There has been so much variation in Hinduism that 
only its most important teaching can be taken at each 
point. The teachings of Jesus must be taken in gen- 
eral to represent Christianity. 


God. 
In Hinduism the § 






ing_j ersonal 


Brahma, a philosophical Absolute, serenely _ blissful, 
beyond all hamperings either ethical or metaphysical. 
In Christianity the Supreme Being is supreme—per-—— 
sonality, perfect_in character, creativelypurposeful, 


éthically controlling, lovingly serviceful, co-operatively 
redemptive. —- 





Man. 


or temporary manifestation of the impersonal Supreme, 
is not inherently or permanently worthful, is not_re- 
sponsible before -Ged,is not permitted to be brotherly 
with all fellow human beings. tn Christianity the 
human individual, a child of the heavenly Father, 
shares in the moral character of God, though capable 
of tragic selfishness, disobedience, and degeneration; 
he is responsible before God for loving service to fellow 
men, and is designed for abundant personal life with 
God and fellow men, both here and hereafter. 





88 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


The World. 


\¢ In Hinduism the world is a temporary, worthless 

illusion (Maya). In Christianity the world is a_sub- 
"| stantial manifestation of the divine plan, wisdom, and 
power. It is to be progressively understood and en- 
joyed as a subordinate means of moral_and_ spiritual 
life. 


Sin. 

In Hinduism there is no real sin. Lamentable 
philosophic ignorance (avidya) & tactical violation 
of caste rules are defects, which will entail continued 
reincarnation. However, all apparent evils are over- 
come by immersion of oneself in the non-moral Brahma 
and by compliance with hereditary social conventions. 
In Christianity sin is real and is against God, against 
fellowamen, and agaist sel—The stragsle against it 
is the contest into which all Christians are called. 


Salvation. 

Alon geeret 
In Hinduism a person may follow any of three op- 
ional methods: the_intellectual way of knowledge 
(jnana-marga) concerning pantheism, the emotional 
Ww f devotion (bhakti-marga) to-any favorite deity, 
ie the practical way of works (karma-marga) in pre- 


scribed ceremonial law. In Christianity salvation is 
obtained through whole-souled see love 
and law of the Father-God; and Jesus Christ more than 
any other person helps orm haracter of 
his follower into the full likeness of a child of God. 


Human Society. 

In Hinduism the people who have been born in the 
fourfold caste system constitute a divinely arranged 
structure of superimposed, mutually exclusive strata, 


HINDUISM 39 


to be accepted unquestioningly. In Christianity man- 


kind constitutesatamily, all its members designed for 


varied mutual service, to be improved progressively. 


Karma and Grace. 

In Hinduism there is acknowledged to exist, quite 
apart from Brahma or any deity, a cosmic power of 
justice named Karma. ‘This is an impersonal “law of 
the deed,”’ which administers due retribution to every 
person for his deeds by assigni o him in his next | 
reincarnation a higher or a lower social status. : How- | 
ever, by abstaining from all efforts and desires a Hindu 
may succeed in overcoming the consequences of all hi 
previous deeds, and thus escape altogether into % 
superior state of impersonality. In Christianity t 
righteous God does indeed administer just rewards an 
punishments, but not in the form of reincarnation! 
The supreme principle operative in the world is tha 
the gracious personality of God, and of every godlike 
human being, is able winsomely to attract a sinner into 
godlikeness. 









11. Elements of Strength in Hinduism. 

Belief in one supreme, omnipresent, non-material 
spiritual Reality underlying all phenomena. = 

Belief in a knowledge of, and union with, the Divine 
as life’s goal. . Bae 

Belief in a sure future life, with appropriate retribu- 
tions for deeds done. 

Belief in the solidarity of the society into which one 
is born, something divinely instituted, and superior to 
the individual. 

Ability to make religion thoroughly permeate the 
life of its followers. 

Ability to hold together so many groups, for so many 


40 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


centuries, within a social unity, by means-of a common 
religious faith. 


12. Elements of Weakness in Hinduism. 


No personal character or moral responsibility in the 
Supreme Being. 

No permanent worth or moral ideal for the human 
individual. 

No universal moral standard, except social distinc- 
tions. 

No possible improvement in a person’s social status, 
except after death. 

No possible improvement in the general arrange- 
ments of society, except in the teachings of a few un- 
heeded reformers. 

The excessive general ceremonialism of worship, or 
the extreme of empty meditation. 

The gross idolatry, theoretically justifiable by pan- 
theism, and only slightly repudiated by Hinduism’s 
leaders. 

Caste, with its inertia and divisiveness. 

The generally low position of womanhood, to be 
found even in all the sacred scriptures except the 
Bhagavad Gita. 

No outlook for the rest of the world outside its own 
national group, except by a few modern reformers. 

No outstanding admirable historic figure recorded in 
Hinduism’s scriptures. 


Til 
JAINISM 


Tur RELIGION OF ASCETICISM 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


Jainism is one of the Oriental religions which is 
little known. Yet it holds a certain notable place 
among the religious systems and philosophies of its 
native land, and even of the whole world. 


(1) In Relation to the History of India. 


Jainism is the oldest personally founded religion 
in India. It was the first organized effort in several 
centuries of a powerful leader to bring about a con- 
scious improvement of Hinduism, which has been India’s 
earliest spontaneous religion. About forty years later 
Buddhism arose as another reform movement. Both 
of these offshoots have exercised a certain kindly and 
democratic influence in India over against the animal 
sacrifices and the caste divisions of Hinduism. How- 
ever, the main results of both protests have been the 
formation of a new separate religion rather than the 
reformation of Hinduism. 

Jainism holds an important place in the architec- 
ture and archseology of India. The Jain stupa (me- 
morial mound), at Mathura, bears an inscription which 
dates from near the beginning of the Christian era, 
and which states that its antiquity was so great that 
it had actually been “built by the gods.”? This re- 
ligious structure, which is built of brick, is “probably 
the oldest known building in India” (“‘Archzeological 

41 


42 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Survey of India, New Imperial Series,” 20: 12-13). 
The Jain temples at Ahmedabad, Ellora, Ajmere, and 
Mount Abu in west India, and the exquisite mono- 
lithic Jain temple at Kaligamalai in south India, are 
among the architectural treasures of the land. They 
are visited profitably by travellers around the world. 
Jainism was the earlier of two almost simultaneous 
reform movements, but it has been the lesser in subse- 
quent history. It has never extended itself outside 
of India, as did Buddhism. Even within India the 
Jains are found in limited areas, mostly in the southern 
and western districts. However, with shrewd busi- 
ness ability the Jains, who are mostly merchants, have 
acquired wealth and social importance far beyond 
their numbers. Yet the fact remains that the per- 
centage of this rather self-centred religious community 
to the total population of India has been steadily de- 
creasing. In the census of 1921 A. D., the aggregate 
number of Jains amounted to about a million and a 
quarter (1,248,000). Thus Jainism’s position in India 
is important historically, but minor and diminishing. 


(2) In Relation to Other Religions and Philosophies. 


The founder of Jainism did his work during a period 
of creative importance in several countries of the 
world. Besides Buddha, Mahavira was a contem- 
porary of the founders of three among the world’s 
living religions: Confucius and Lao-tze in China, and 
Zoroaster in Persia, according to the latter’s latest 
date. Israel’s epochal Babylonian period, with the 
great prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah of the Exile, 
fell within the lifetime of the founder of Jainism. The 
lives of the six earliest Greek philosophers, viz., Thales, 
Anaximander, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Pythagoras, 
and Heraclitus overlapped on the life of Mahavira. 





JAINISM 43 


But none of those pioneers of thought in a land famed 
for philosophy and beauty have left living personal 
memorials of themselves. On the contrary, in India 
Mahavira is revered at the present time by more than 
a million people who actually idolize him, even with 
images for worship. Their most frequent designation 
for him is a title, Mahavira, meaning “Great Hero.” 
And they call themselves “Jaina,’’ meaning ‘“ Follow- 
ers of the Jina,” which latter is another honorific name 
for their adored “Victor” or “Conqueror.” 


(3) In Relation to Christianity. 


Jainism may be brought into two striking compari- 
sons with Christianity. The Jains claim to have known 
the religious significance of the fateful conflict between 
a person’s flesh and spirit centuries before Paul de- 
scribed it with illuminating explanations in the seventh 
and eighth chapters of his Epistle to the Romans. 
And the idea of an active universal religion, which is 
a prime characteristic of Christianity, seems to have 
been anticipated by Jainism. Three passages in two 
of the canonical documents report that Mahavira, 
more than 500 years before Christ, received divine 
encouragement to propagate a religion that should be 
supreme in benefit to all the world. (See page 45.) 
Yet this noble start toward religious universality has 
been entirely lost by Jainism. 


2. The Life of the Founder, Mahavira (599-527 B. C.). 
~ No attempt at a biography of the founder of this 
religion is contained in its sacred scriptures. Some 
biographical material may be found, however, in three 
of the canonical documents which are available in 
English (SBE, 22 : 79-87; 22: 217-270; 45 : 287-292). 
The longest of the three sections was composed about 


44 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


1,000 years after Mahavira, and is occupied chiefly 
with marvellous events in connection with his birth; 
for example, the fourteen marvellous dreams of his 
mother interpreted as prophecies of a wonderful son to 
be born; the family’s sudden prosperity, and many 
favorable circumstances at his birth. The simple his- 
toric fact was that he was born the second son of a 
petty rajah in northeast India, in the town of Vesali. 


(1) Palace Life (1-30 years). 
He was reared in luxurious surroundings. 


Mahavira was attended by five nurses: a wet-nurse, a nurse to 
keep him clean, one to dress him, one to play with him, one to 
carry him, being transferred from the lap of one nurse to that 
of another. (SBE, 22: 192-193.) 


He married into another princely family, and had 
one daughter. He spent a glorious youth as a prince. 


(2) The Great Renunciation (at 30). 


Upon the death of his parents Mahavira determined 
to become a religious ascetic in accordance with one 
of Hinduism’s recognized methods of obtaining sal- 
vation. 


I shall for twelve years neglect my body. (SBE, 22: 200.) 


This plan is reported as having been a prenatal 
resolution, which in great filial considerateness for his 
parents he did not perform during their lifetime. Then 
he cast aside his fine clothes, gave away all his prop- 
erty, plucked out his hair in five handfuls, and vowed 
absolute holiness. This action caused a great stir 
among the gods of Hinduism, who thereupon acclaimed 
this Hindu of the second caste as a devotee of a re- 
ligion which should become a universal blessing. 


JAINISM 45 


Blessed One (arhat)! Propagate the religion which is a blessing 
to all creatures in the world. (SBE, 22: 195.) 

Luck to thee, best bull of the Kshatriyas! Awake, reverend 
Lord of the world! Establish the religion of the law which 
benefits all living beings in the whole universe! It will bring 
supreme benefit to all living beings in all the world! (SBE, 
22 :256.) - 

Victory, victory to thee, gladdener of the world! ... O Hero, 
in the arena of the three worlds gain the supreme best knowl- 
edge, called Absolute (kevala). (SBE, 22: 258.) 


(3) Seeking Salvation Through Asceticism (80-42). 


For the first year and a month he continued to wear 
clothes, but thereafter he was a naked ascetic (SBE, 
22:79; 22: 259-260). He wandered about receiving 
injuries from men and beasts, and undergoing strange 
self-imposed bodily sufferings (SBE, 22 : 79-87). 

He was indifferent alike to the smell of filth and of sandalwood, 
to straw and to jewels, to dirt and to gold, to pleasure and to 
pain, attached neither to this world nor to that beyond, de- 
siring neither life nor death. _ (SBE, 22 : 262.) 

With supreme knowledge, mildness, patience, control, content- 
ment, . . . the Venerable One meditated on himself for twelve 
years. (SBE, 22: 263.) 

During the thirteenth year, in a squatting position . . . exposing 
himself to the heat of the sun . . . with the knees high and the 
head low, in deep meditation, in the midst of abstract medi- 


tation, he reached Nirvana, the complete and full, the unob- 
structed, infinite Absolute (kevala). (SBE, 22: 201.) 


(4) Preaching the New Religion of Asceticism (42-72). 


After he felt that he had gained complete self-control 
over his body and over the world, Mahavira changed 
from being a solitary ascetic to a leader and teacher of 
many monks. He won large numbers of converts and 
disciples. Legends report that he visited, preached to, 
and gained favor from, four kings. He continued 
preaching to the end of his life. 





Reciting the fifty-five lectures which detail the results of Karma, 
when he had just explained the chief lecture, he died, freed 
from all pains. (SBE, 22: 269.) 


46 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


In that night in which the Venerable Ascetic Mahavira died . 
a great confusion and noise was originated by many descend- 
ing and ascending gods. (SBE, 22: 265.) 


3. The Veneration of Mahavira. | 

According to the teaching of Mahavira himself there’ 
exists no object to be worshipped. He himself lived 
what he taught,—a life quiet and unperturbed, self- 
denying and harmless and prayerless,—yet his followers 
pray to Mahavira. The sacred scriptures represent 
him as possessing divine attributes. He is revered as 
sinless. 


Having wisdom, Mahavira committed no sin himself. ... He 
meditated, free from sin and desire. (SBE, 22 : 86-87.) 

The great sage does not commit any wrong. (SBE, 45: 291.) 

Knowing the current of worldliness, the current of sinfulness .. . 
practising the sinless abstinence from killing . . . whatever is 
sinful, the Venerable One left that undone. (SBE, 22:81.) 


He is revered as omniscient. 


He knew the thoughts of all sentient beings. (SBE, 22: 200.) 

He possessed supreme, unlimited, unimpeded knowledge and in- 
tuition. (SBE, 22 : 257.) 

This wise and clever great sage possessed infinite knowledge and 
infinite faith. (SBE, 45 : 287.) 

Omniscient, he shines forth. . The Omniscient sage has pro- 
claimed the Law. . . . The Omniscient is the most famous... 
He, the Omniscient. (SBE, 45 : 288-291.) 


He is declared in the sacred scriptures of Jainism to 
have been pre-existent and planfully incarnate. 


He descended from heaven . . . the Venerable Ascetic Mahavira 
descended from the great Vimana (palace of the gods)... . 
Here in the continent of Jambudvipa (India), in the southern 
part of Bharata-varsha (north India), he took the form of an 
embryo in the womb of Devananda. (SBE, 22: 189-190; 
22 : 217-228.) 


Along with this doctrinal deification, Mahavira has 
actually been worshipped idolatrously. Indeed, the 





JAINISM AT 


two main sects among the Jains differ from each other 
on the question whether their idols of Mahavira, like 
their own bodies, should be clothed or naked. Maha- 
vira has been venerated as a veritable savior of men, 
and the sacred scriptures report him as the last of 
a series of twenty-four such saviors (SBE, 22: 218, 
280). 


4. The Sacred Scriptures. 

The inclusive name for the sacred scriptures of 
Jainism is Agamas (precepts), or Siddhantas (treatises). 
The first section of the canon is acknowledged to con- 
sist of twelve Angas (bodies), but the twelfth has been 
lost. 

None of them can be dated earlier than 200 years 

after the founder. The thirty-seventh in the present 
list, which contains the most extensive biographical 
‘sketch of Mahavira, states twice that the founder had 
died 980 years previously. 
_ The authority of the extant scriptures is a point of 
difference between the sects of Jainism. The Sthanak- 
vasi sect recognizes only thirty-three documents as 
canonical, while the Svetambara sect recognizes forty- 
five. Some Jains claim a longer list of eighty-four. 
The foremost European authority on this religion re- 
ports that the sacred scriptures are little used by the 
Jains. 


| 


They do not seem much to study the sacred texts themselves, but 
usually content themselves with quoting lists of the names of 
their books. (Mrs. Stevenson, “Heart of Jainism,” 13.) 





The language of the Jain scriptures is one of the 
Prakrit vernaculars which was current in _ north- 
central India at the time of Mahavira. The early 
important commentaries on the Prakrit canon and 


48 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


much of the later religious literature of Jainism were 
written in Sanskrit. Neither language is known to the 
bulk of the Jains now living. The sacred scriptures in 
the original are read or chanted in the temple regularly, 
and even pious laymen do recite from the texts daily. 
But most Jains are quite ignorant of their own sacred 
scriptures. A few have been translated into the pres- 
ent vernaculars. Four have been translated in two vol- 
umes of the “Sacred Books of the East.” Three others 
have been translated by European scholars. Thus 
only a small fraction of the sacred scriptures of Jain- 
ism have become available in English. 


5. The Conception of Supreme Being. 

Jainism started by denying any Supreme Being in 
the world. Mahavira rejected the whole current 
Hindu polytheistic belief in various natural and super- 
natural powers as quite superfluous. He condemned 
the practice of praying to or even talking about any 
deity. 

A monk or a nun should not say, “The god of the sky!” ‘‘The 
god of the thunderstorm!’ ‘The god who begins to rain!” 
*“May rain fall!’” “May the crops grow!” ‘“‘May the king 
conquer!’? They should not use such speech. But, knowing 
the nature of things, he should say, “The air.” “A cloud is 


gathered, or come down.” “The cloud has rained.’ This is 
the whole duty. (SBE, 22: 152.) 


The sturdy Mahavira scorned the plea that any per- 
son needs the help of a friend on high. 


Man! Thou art thy own friend! Why wishest thou for a friend 
beyond thyself? (SBE, 22: 33.) 


The usual cosmological argument for a Creator God 
is denounced in the scriptures as an indication of sheer 
ignorance. 


JAINISM 49 


Those who on arguments of their own maintain that the world 
has been created do not know the truth. (SBE, 45 : 245.) 


However, a reaction subsequently took place. Ma- 
havira himself became apotheosized, and many other 
‘saviors, perfect ones, and victors were believed in, 
despite the founder’s denial of any kind of theistic 
belief. 

There is a strange mystery in Jainism; for though it acknowledges 
no personal God, knowing Him neither as Creator, Father, or 
Friend, yet it will never allow itself to be called an atheistic 
system. Indeed, there is no more deadly insult that one could 


level at a Jain than to call him a nastika or atheist. (Mrs. 
Stevenson, “‘Heart of Jainism,” 298.) 


Mahavira did teach the doctrine of Karma (the law 
‘of the deed), which administers moral retribution in a 
Mans life. This is an impersonal cosmic power which 
is active, knowable, and inescapable. Jainism’s con- 
ead of the Supreme Being is quite different from 
Hinduism’s doctrine of the Supreme Being, Brahma, 
which is unknowable, non-moral, and merely meta- 
physical. 





6. The Ethics of Jainism. 


The perfect Jain is an ascetic, humble, inoffensive, 
‘and unvindictive. 


Learn from me the noble Law of the Jains as it is... . Deceit, 
greed, anger and pride; a wise man should abstain from these. 
Shoes, umbrella, dice, working for another, helping each 
other: from all this a wise man should abstain. . . . If beaten, 
he should not be angry; if abused, he should not fly into a pas- 
sion; with a placid mind he should bear everything, and not 
make a great noise. (SBE, 45 : 301-305.) 
A monk should not be angry, if beaten; nor should he entertain 
sinful thoughts. Knowing patience to be the highest good, a 
monk should meditate on the law. (SBE, 45:12.) 








Love, as well as hate, must’ be abandoned, because 
both are forms of attachment. 


50 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


A monk who loves not even those who love him, will be freec 
from sin and hatred. (SBE, 45 : 32.) 

By conquering love, hate, and wrong belief he will cut off th | 
fetters of Karma. (SBE, 45 : 172.) | 

By the teaching of true knowledge, by the avoidance of ignorance: — 
and delusion, and by the destruction of love and hatred, on; 
arrives at final deliverance. (SBE, 45 : 184.) 


The chief virtues of Jainism are mendicant asceti- 
cism and non-injury (ahimsa). 


Alone, living on allowed food, he should wander about. ... He 
should beg food. A wise man should not care whether he yets 
alms or not. (SBE, 45 : 12-13.) 

Dish-water, barley-pap, cold-sour gruel, water in which barley 
has been washed: such loathsome food and drink he should no 
despise, but call at the lowliest houses for alms. Then he is + 
true monk. (SBE, 45:72.) 


This is ee quintessence of wisdom; not to kill anything. (SBE, 
45 > 247 


Mahavira enjoined upon his followers “Five Grea‘ 
Vows,” which prohibit killing, lying, stealing, all sexu: 
pleasures, and attachments. (SBE, 22 : 202-210.) 


7. Other Important Features of Jainism. 


The cause of all misery is the connection of the vil. 
material body with the pure eternal spirit of man 
This theory is philosophically known as dualism. 
Matter and human spirit are two absolutely differen 
kinds of being. 

The practical application of this theory is that every 
Jain should suppress his body for the sake of liberating 
his soul, even as did the “‘Great Victor’? Mahavira. 
The goal of salvation is Moksha or Nirvana. This 1s 
a state of blessedness in which the individual soul is 
released from all bodily encumbrance or attachment, 
and also from all previous “karma” or deeds. 

The complete method of salvation has been formu- 
lated in “The Three Jewels” of Jainism. 





JAINISM 51 


&{ Knowledge, faith and right conduct are the true causes of final 
liberation. (SBE, 45 : 123.) 


One of the clearest differentiations of Jainism from 
Hinduism is that Mahavira condemned the fourfold 
hereditary caste system. In place thereof he brought 
ai. of his devotees into a voluntarily entered monastic 
‘order, the “Sangha,” literally “congregation.” Yet, 
for lack of a constructive principle of social organiza- 
tion, Jainism has not succeeded in freeing itself from 
the idea of caste, which has been so strong in the life 
of India. Even the gods, who subsequently were rein- 
stated in Jainism, have been arranged in social ranks. 


As on earth, or rather as in India, there are sweepers who act as 
scavengers for men, and live apart from them, so in the heavens 
there are gods who do menial service for the other gods, and 
live apart from them. Altogether there are in heaven and hell 

ninety-nine kinds of gods who are regarded as menial because 

they serve. (Mrs. Stevenson, “‘Heart of Jainism,” 270.) 


f 


Karma, the moral law of retribution for deeds done, 
is another important feature of Jainism. The exact 
application of the law of Karma is in the transmigra- 
tion of souls, which causes rebirth in this same miser- 
able world according to the deeds of a previous exist- 
ence. 


I shall now explain in due order the eight kinds of Karma, bound 
by which the soul turns round and round in the circle of births. 
(SBE, 45: 192.) 
_ By hurting these beings, men do harm to their own souls, and 
will again and again be born as one of them. (SBE, 45 : 292.) 


~! Womankind is utterly condemned in the scriptures 
of Jainism. 


He, Mahavira, to whom women were known as the causes of all 
sinful acts, he saw the true state of the world. (SBE, 22:81.) 
Women are the greatest temptation in the world. This has been 
declared by the sage. He should not speak of women, nor 


52 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


look at them, nor converse with them, nor claim them as his | 
own, nor do their work. (SBE, 22: 48.) 





And yet women were admitted as nuns into a separate 
monastic order. 


8. Sects in Jainism. 


The main division in the Jain community has been 
between the “‘White-clad”’ Svetambara sect and the 
“Sky-clad”? Digambara sect. About the year 310 
B.C., when the mendicant community was suffering 
from a great famine in north India, a party of perhaps- 
12,000 Jains, under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, | 
emigrated to Mysore, in south India. In that warmer 
region, where less clothes are needed, a stricter asceti- 
cism has been observed than by the Jains in the north. 
The two sections split definitely about the year 82 
A. D., on the troublesome question of wearing clothes. ; 
Ever since that date most of the Jains who live in the 
cooler regions north of the Vindhya Mountains have 
belonged to the white-clad Svetambara sect, while 
the Jains in the southern half of India have belonged 
to the naked Digambara sect. But Muhammadan in- 
vaders have compelled the Digambara Jains to wear 
at least a loin-cloth. 

These two main sects differ also on the propriety of 
garbing their idols. Among the Svetambara Jains 
idols as well as human beings are clad in simple white. 
The idols of the Digambara Jains are unclad, like their 
worshippers. 

Another marked difference is in the treatment of 
women. Recognized nuns are found naturally only 
among the Svetambara sect. The Digambara sect 
does not allow the possibility of religious salvation to 
a woman, until by reason of a good life she becomes re- 
born as a man. 





JAINISM 53 


The third chief group among the Jains is the non- 
idolatrous Sthanakvasi sect, founded by a Svetambara 
reformer who in 1474 A. D. discovered that certain 
of the Jain scriptures make no reference to idols. The 
'Sthanakvasi Jains themselves have divided into eleven 
subsects, and the Svetambara Jains into at least 
eighty-four subsects. 


g. The History of Jainism. 

During their twenty-five centuries of existence the 
Jains have sometimes been active, and have won the 
favor of kings in India. They have produced some 
notable religious literature and architecture. How- 
ever, on the whole they have remained an hereditary, 
self-centred, self-divided community. They have suf- 
fered from internal divisions of their own as well as 
some persecutions from Hindus and Moslems. In their 
long history there are a few outstanding events. 


B. C. 

513 The first schism took place fourteen years after the 
death of the Founder. 

409 An image of Mahavira was first set up for worship 
in a Jain temple, though the date may possibly 
have been later. (Mrs. Stevenson, ‘‘Heart of 
Jainism,” 69.) 

300 The first two main groups in the sacred scriptures 
were reputed to have been settled at the Council 
of Patna. 

250 The great Buddhist monarch, Asoka, donated five 
caves to the Jains “‘for so long as the sun and moon 
do endure.” 

232 Samprali, grandson and successor of Asoka, estab- 
lished Jain temples and monasteries. 

A.D. 

100 Jain literature arose in the Tamil language in south 
India. 

200 Jain literature arose in the vernaculars of Gujarat, 
western India. 

514 Jainism’s canon of sacred scripture was reputed to 


have been closed at the Council of Valabhi. 


54 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


550 
640 


650 


Jainism became popular in southern Maratha coun- 
try in western India. | 

The famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang, | 
found many Jain temples and adherents at Con- 
jeevaram and elsewhere in south India. He also 
found in north India the nude and white-robed ' 
ascetics, who showed him ‘“‘the spot where the 
original teacher arrived at the knowledge of the 
principles he sought, and where he first preached 
the law. (Beal’s translation ‘“‘Buddhist Records 
of the Western World,” 1 : 144-145.) 

The Hindu king, Kuna, persecuted the Jains at 
Arcot, south India, impaling 8,000. (Vincent 
Smith, “‘Early History of India,” 3d ed., 455.) 


8th century. The “‘Naladiyar,” a collection of gnomic quatrains, 


800 


815-880 


1125-1159 


1174-1176 


1297-1298 
1542-1605 


which stands second highest in the literature of the 
Tamil people in south India, sprang from a name- 
less, though unmistakably, Jain source. 

Tiruvalluvar’s “Sacred Kurral,” perhaps the most 
famous poem in Tamil, used some technical terms 
of Jainism, and has been claimed as the work of a 
Jain. 

Jainism in north India under the leadership of 
Jinasena and Gunabhadra made notable progress 
in the reign of King Amoghavarsha. 

The most eminent Jain scholar and author, Hema- 
chandra, converted a Hindu king in Gujarat, 
Kumarapala, who thereupon built thirty-two Jain 
temples, and made his province the permanent 
stronghold of Jainism. 

A later Hindu king of Gujarat, Ajayadeva, “began 
his reign by a merciless persecution of the Jains, 
torturing their leader to death,’ and destroying 
Jain temples. (Vincent Smith, “Early History of 
India,’ 3d ed., 203.) 

The Muhammadan conqueror of Gujarat, Ala-ud-din, 
wrought a great devastation upon Jains. 

The Grand Moghul Muhammadan emperor of India, 
Akbar, was favorably disposed to the Jains; he 
abolished the poll-tax in Gujarat, acknowledged 
their claim to certain holy pilgrimage places, and 
in deference to Jainism’s teaching of kindness to 
animals, proclaimed a half-yearly abstinence from 
the slaughter of animals throughout India. 








JAINISM 55 


ro. A Comparison of Jainism and Hinduism. 


Important points of original similarity and of original 
dissimilarity and then of growing resemblance may be 
noted between the first personally founded religion in 
India and the older spontaneous chief religion of the 


land. 


(1) Points of Original Similarity. 

Mahavira was born and brought up, lived and died, 
in the Hindu faith. He did not reject Hinduism. And 
he was not rejected by the Hindus, as Jesus was re- 
jected by his hereditary coreligionists, the Jews. Even 
after he had started at the age of thirty on a religious 
movement, which developed into an independent sys- 
tem, Mahavira continued to hold two firm Hindu be- 
liefs: Karma, an impersonal cosmic law of moral retri- 
bution, and transmigration, or reincarnation of souls 
after death. 


(2) Points of Original Dissimilarity. 

Jainism started with many more points of disagree- 
ment than of agreement. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s belief in deity, 
whether the many deities of the Vedas and the Brah- 
manas, or the one metaphysical Absolute of the 
Upanishads. Instead, Mahavira advocated no deity 
at all. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s monistic phi- 
losophy, which interprets the individual soul and all 
matter as a phase of the world soul. Instead, Mahavira 
advocated a dualistic philosophy, which denies the 
theory of a world soul, and which affirms the reality 
of the individual soul and all matter. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s animal sacri- 
fices, as reported both in the Vedas and in the Brah- 


56 ‘THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


manas. Instead, Mahavira advocated ascetic self- 
sacrifice and kindness to animals. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s social system 
of four graded castes. Instead, Mahavira advocated 
the equality of all men who practise religious asceti- 
cism. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s method of 
_ salvation by prayers and ceremonies with the help of 
priests and deities. Instead, Mahavira advocated a 
strictly self-saving scheme. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s sacred scrip- 
tures, the Vedas, written in the archaic Sanskrit lan- 
guage. Instead, Mahavira taught in the vernacular 
of his time, and all the sacred scriptures of Jainism 
were composed subsequently in that Prakrit vernacu- 
Jar. 

Jainism protested against Hinduism’s exclusive in- 
terest in one’s own caste and in one’s own country. 
Instead, Mahavira is reported to have received divine 
command to establish a religion which should prove 
beneficial to all people and to all the world. 


(3) Points of Subsequent Resemblance. 


During the long course of their history these two 
religions have dwelt together in the land of India, and 
nowhere else. Accordingly the younger, smaller re- 
ligion has become assimilated to the older, larger re- 
ligion at certain distinct points. 

Both Jainism and Hinduism now have the belief 
in personal deity, Jainism chiefly in the person of its 
apotheosized founder, and Hinduism chiefly in the 
person of its incarnations, Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, and 
Siva. 

Both Jainism and Hinduism now have polytheism, 
Jainism proceeding subsequently to evolve numerous 


JAINISM 57 


deities, even as Hinduism did both before and after 
the origin of Jainism. 

Both Jainism and Hinduism now have idolatry, al- 
though it was not present in Hinduism before the time 
of Mahavira, and although the anti-idolatrous Stha- 
_nakvasi sect in Jainism has arisen to protest against it. 

Both Jainism and Hinduism now have temples, al- 
though previously temples were unknown in both re- 
ligions, and now they resemble one another closely. 

Both Jainism and Hinduism now have Brahman 
priests officiating in their temple-worship, although 
only individual members of the Hindu sacerdotal class 
are admitted into the Jain temples for this purpose 
occasionally. 

Both Jainism and Hinduism now have the caste 
principle, which was rejected theoretically by Mahavira, 
but which was not supplanted by any other construc- 
tive principle of co-operation in human society, and 
which has subsequently been admitted even into the 
hierarchy of the deities in popular Hinduism. 

At the present time the Jains are feeling less and 
less of the differences which have separated them from 
the great environing body of Hindus in India, and are 
variously coming under the remarkable assimilative 
power of Hinduism, with its slight demand on belief, 
conscience, or conduct. 


11. Elements of Strength in Jainism. 

A certain noble earnestness in the example of its 
self-sacrificing founder, who was utterly devoted to 
the highest religious ideal as he at last found it. 

A certain noble insistence upon self-renunciation by 
every person at all personal cost in loyalty to the high- 
est religious ideal as taught by the founder. 

Its insistence upon the reality of the human soul, 


58 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


and also of the body, both being involved in a pro- 
gramme of salvation. 

Its subordination of all material things in the world 
for the sake of the religious values of the soul. 

Its reverence for life, even though partial or undis- 
criminating. 

A certain positive kindliness, viz., to animals. 

Its theoretical condemnation of the principle of caste, 
even though not successful in rising wholly above caste. 

Its “congregation,” oldest among the voluntarily | 
entered religious organizations in the world. 


12. Elements of Weakness in Jainism. 


Its lack of a supreme personal deity, even though 
Mahavira is venerated. 

Its lack of any divine help available for a human 
being, even though worship has been recovered in this | 
originally atheistic system. 

The essentially self-centred interest prescribed for 
each individual in a narrow self-saving scheme. 

Its false analysis of the cause of evil as located pri- 
marily in the body. 

Its. excessive emphasis on external asceticism. 

Its general negative method of repression. 

Its inconsistence in advocating kindness to animals, 
while advocating harshness to oneself. 

Its lack of discrimination between different values 
to be included in an abundant and harmonious life. 

Its general indifference to joy, beauty and the world. 

Its low estimate of the value of human life. 

Its condemnation of woman and the family. 

Its lack of any constructive principle of social organi- 
zation or of social amelioration. 

Its total loss of a certain former universal outlook. 

Its historic lapse into idolatry and caste. 


IV 


BUDDHISM 
THE © Rewicion or Pracerun, Er ETHICAL SAUL 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living eneccea 


Buddhism was the first religion in the world to be- 
come international. Yet theoretically Buddhism has 
often been denied the designation of being a religion. 


Though for historical purposes we may class it as a religion, .. . 
it comes short of the notion of a religion, and is not properly 
entitled to that name. (Menzies, “History of Religion,” 353; 
similarly, 380, 424.) 


The original Buddhism of Buddha might more pre- 
cisely be thus disqualified, as by one of the foremost 
authorities on the subject. 


Buddhism, at least in its earliest and truest form, is no religion 
at all, but a mere system of morality and philosophy founded 
ona essimisti : (Monier-Williams, “* Buddhism,” 
537; similarly, 539.) 


Doubtless the founder did not set out to found a new 
religion. His main emphasis was on saving oneself 
from a world which is thoroughly infected with misery. 
He did not teach a personal deity, worship, or prayer. 
Yet he taught a moral law in the universe which was 
ethically superior to the metaphysical Supreme Being 
taught in the Hinduism from which he reacted. Sub- 
sequently Buddha himself was deified; numerous other 
deities have been believed in by the majority of Bud- 
dhists; and there have been developed worship and 
prayer and an ecclesiastical organization which, next 

59 


60 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


to that of Jainism, is the oldest voluntarily entered 
religious organization in the world. 

Only two other religions in the world to-day claim 
to be universal. The world-wide outlook of Christi- 
anity started more than 500 years later, and that of 
Islam more than 1,100 years later than Buddhism. 

As for the number of Buddhists in the world, per- 
haps the nearest estimate is 137,000,000. The most 
excessive claim is 500,000,000 made by T. W. Rhys 
Davids (“Buddhism, A Sketch,” page 6). But that 
ardent expounder of Buddhism qualified his claim con- 
siderably on the very next page of his book: 


Not one of the 500,000,000 who offer flowers now and then on 
Buddhist shrines, who are more or less moulded by Buddhist 
teachings, is only or altogether a Buddhist. 


At the present time Buddhism has virtually died out 
in the land of its birth. In British India “the only 
survivors of purely Indian Buddhism are a small com- 
munity of nearly 2,000.” 1! Buddhism now is pro- 
fessed by no community of Aryans or Semites, only 
by Mongolians. Except for some recent revivals in 
Siam, China, and Japan, Buddhism as a whole is 
quiescent. 


2. The Life of the Founder, Buddha (560-480 B. C.). 


Some biographical material is to be found in the 
canonical scriptures, but no attempt at a complete 
biography. Later stories and poems contain many 
wonderful accounts; for example, his mother’s dream 
of a non-human conception, and his supernatural birth 
from a queen mother when she was forty-five years 
old (Warren, “‘Buddhism in Translations,’”’ 42-48). 


1 Census, 1911, p. 125. 


BUDDHISM 61 


Her son was born for the welfare of the world, without pain and 
without illness. Thus was his birth miraculous. (SBE, 49: 
part 1, p. 5-6.) 

Many marvels accompanied his advent. A Hindu 
saint prophesied the future greatness of the infant 
(Warren, BT, 45-47; SBE, 19 : 16-18). 

Doubts concerning the historicity of the founder 
of Buddhism were settled when in December, 1896, 
Doctor Fuhrer, of the British Archzological Survey, 
unearthed the inscription on the stone pillar which the 
famous Buddhist convert, King Asoka, had erected at 
the birthplace of Buddha about 250 B. C.1 


(1) A Palace Prince (Age 1-29). 

His own name was Gautama in Sanskrit, or Gotama 
in Pali. He was born the eldest son and heir pre- 
sumptive of the rich Hindu rajah of the Sakya clan, 
at the town of Kapilavastu, about a hundred miles 
north of Benares. He was reared in luxurious cir- 
cumstances. 

And the king procured nurses for the future Buddha, women of 
fine figure, and free from all blemish. And so the future Buddha 
began to grow, surrounded by an immense retinue, and in great 
splendor. (Warren, BT, 53.) 

At sixteen his father built three palaces for the 

young prince. 


And in the enjoyment of great magnificence he lived, as the sea- 

sons changed, in each of these three palaces. (Warren, BT, 55.) 

At nineteen he was married to a neighboring prin- 
cess, but he had no son for ten years. 


(2) The Great Renunciation (Age 29). 
While out pleasure driving Prince Gautama was 
deeply impressed by four passing sights, viz.: a decrepit 
1“ Archeological Survey of North India,” vol. VI, 27-28, 1897. 


62 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


old man, a loathsomely sick man, a corpse, and a calm 
religious ascetic unperturbed by any suffering. He 
became distressed at the thought that he himself and 
all mankind were liable to the miseries of oncoming 
old age, sickness, and death. And he became con- 
vinced that only resolute self-sacrifice and search would 
win triumphant peace. Therefore, despite a fierce 
temptation, he renounced his wife, a new-born son, 
and the inheritance of his father’s throne. Cutting 
off his hair, he assumed the garb of a monk (SBE, 19: 
31-58; 49:1. 27-61; Warren, BT, 56-67). 


(3) A Seeking of Salvation (Age 29-35). 

He started to solve the previously unappreciated 
‘problem of wide-spread suffering by following Hindu- 
ism’s most approved method of salvation, viz., phil- 

sophic speculation concerning the interrelationship of 
he human individual with the Supreme Being. 


Yet even so he came not out of the mire. (SBE, 19 : 142.) 


Thereupon he tried bodily asceticism, the method 
which Jainism advocates for salvation. 


Living on one sesamum seed, or on one grain of rice, a day. Now; 
the six years which the Great Being thus spent in austerities 
were like time spent in endeavoring to tie the air into knots. 
(Warren, BT, 70-71.) 


(4) The Great Enlightenment (Age 35). 


Alone in quiet meditation one night, while sitting 
cross-legged under a bo-tree, he analyzed out a simple 
psychological solution of the cause and cure of evil. 
The fundamental universal “Four Noble Truths” of 
Buddhism may be summarized thus: 

All existence involves suffering. 


All suffering is caused by indulging in inherently insatiable desires. 
Therefore all suffering will cease upon the suppressing of all desires. 


BUDDHISM 63 


However, while still living, every person should live moderately, 
viz., in accordance with the ‘‘Noble Eightfold Path” of right 
belief, aspiration, speech, action, livelihood, endeavor, thought, 
and concentration. (SBE, 10:1. 52; 11: 148-152; 13: 95-102; 
17 : 104-105.) 


The word which seems most completely to have 
characterized this critical spiritual experience was 
“buddha,” the past participle of the Sanskrit verb*“‘to 
become enlightened,” or “wise.”’ And that word has 


been his special appellation or title, “‘Buddha,”’ ever 
since. 


As soon as my knowledge and insight were quite clear regarding 
each of these four noble truths, then did I become certain that 
I had attained to the full insight of that wisdom which is un- 
surpassed in the heavens or on the earth. Immovable is the 
emancipation of my heart. ‘This is my last existence. There 
will be no rebirth for me. (SBE, 11: 152-153.) 


His sense of relief in being freed from the dread of 
transmigration is recorded in several of the canonical 
documents as an integral part of his “enlightenment” 
(SBE, 10: 1. 42-43; 11 : 153; 13:97; Warren, BT, 338). 


(5) Public Ministry (Age 35-80). 

Straightway he went forth throughout his native 
country of Magadha, in north India, and preached his 
new-found gospel of salvation by psychological, self- 
disciplinary, ethical culture, saying that_an_earnest 
perso ds only to exercis anipulation of 
ihis own states of consciousness, without any of the con- 

entionat appliances of religion, such as deity, worship, 
eremony, dogma, priesthood, or supernatural connec- 
ions. Buddha inveighed particularly against the cur- 
ent Hindu conceptions of an alleged metaphysical 
upreme being and the value of prayer and the sacred- 
ess of the Vedic scriptures. 


64 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Who has ever seen Brahma face to face? 

Would the further bank of the river Akirvati by reason of that 
man’s invoking and praying, hope and praising come over to this. 
side? 

The talk then of these Brahmans, versed in the Vedas, turns out 
to be ridiculous, mere words, a vain and empty sl (SBE, 
11: 172, 174, 180.) 


When he had gained sixty disciples, he sent them also 
to carry abroad his simple message of a salvation more 
urgently needed, and more freely available than Hin- 
duism had announced. 


Go ye now out of compassion for the world, for the welfare of 
gods and men. Let not two of you go the same way. Preach 
the doctrine which is glorious. Proclaim a consummate, per- 
fect a pure life of holiness. (SBE, 13: 112-113; similarly, 
11 : 60. 


Buddha was an effective preacher and _ personal 
worker, who wrought many conversions. Some of his 
parables are similar to those of Jesus, yet are remark- 
ably different, such as the parable of a Sower (SBE, 
10: 2. 11-15), of a Prodigal Son (SBE, 21 : 99-106), of 
the Mustard Seed (Rhys Davids, “Buddhism, a 
Sketch,” 133-134). A large number of parables are 
collected in E. W. Burlingame, “Buddhist Parables.” 


By hundreds of arguments and illustrations have I, in one way 
or another, gladdened all creatures. (SBE, 21: 44.) 


Buddha died at the age of eighty, very decrepit in 
body, but invincible in spirit, in a little “‘wattel-and-_ 
daub town, in a branch yillage,”’ where he happened 
to be at the time in his task of itinerant preaching, 
surrounded by a group of 500 disciples. 


In this whole assembly of the brethren there is not one brother 
who has any doubt or misgiving as to the Buddha, or the truth, 
or the path, or the way. - Then the Blessed One addressed 
the brethren, and said: “Behold now, brethren, decay is in- 


BUDDHISM 65 


herent in all component things! Work out your own salvation 
with diligence!” ‘This was the last word of the Blessed One. 
(SBE, 11: 114; Warren, BT, 109.) 


3. The Veneration of Buddha. 


One of the striking facts in the history of religions 
is the way in which Buddha, who taught no divine 
object of worship, but who labored self-sacrificingly 
for the saving of the world, has himself been loved and 
worshipped. 


(1) Evidence for the Humanity of Buddhas—~---. 


The earlier and simpler narratives in the canonical 
scriptures report various incidents which show that 
Buddha was subject to common human weaknesses, 
even after his “enlightenment.” 


The Blessed One was troubled with wind on his stomach. (SBE, 
17:68.) 


Now, when the Blessed One had eaten the food prepared by 
Kunda, the worker in metal, there fell upon him a dire sickness, 
the disease of dysentery; and a sharp pain came upon him, 
even unto death. (SBE, 11:72.) 


(2) His Disciples’ Unbounded Admiration of Buddha. 


His devoted, loving disciples had no condemnation 
to make of him who might easily have ruled as a king, 
but who voluntarily relinquished his royal inheritance 
for religion’s sake, and who then for well-nigh half a 
century made himself as one of the common folk for the 
salvation of the world. 


No fault in the perfectly enlightened, thoughtful Buddha. (SBE, 
10 : 2. 29.) 

So unequalled in “he world, so mild, so kind! And held before 
him aims so high and endeavors so grand! (SBE, 35: 178.) 

A king of universal kings, a conqueror. (SBE, 10:2. 102.) 


Emotional admiration of Buddha as perfect grew 


66 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 
into formal adoration of him as superior even to the 
gods of Hinduism. 


The noblest of men, like Indra himself. (SBE, 49:1. 56.) 
The heavenly beings with Brahma at their head, went to the city 


and worshipped him, propitiating his favor. (SBE, 49:1. 190.) | 


Gods and men will worship him as “‘The Great One that hath 
transcended time.” Nor is there in the world with its gods 
any one Thy equal. (J. H. Moore, “‘Iti-vuttaka, the Sayings 
of Buddha,” 132-133.) 


(3) Evidence for the Divinity of Buddha. 


He appeared and taught in an assembly marvel- | 


lously, and disappeared, leaving the people to wonder: 


Who may this be, who has thus vanished away? a man, or a god? 
(SBE, 11: 49.) 


His birth was accompanied by thirty-two prognosti- 
cations, which included the following items: 


The blind recovered their sight, as if from desire to see this his 
glory. The deaf received their hearing. The dumb talked. 
The hunchbacked became straight of body. ‘The lame recov- 
ered the power to walk. All those in bonds were freed from 
their bonds and chains. (Warren, BT, 44.) 


His “enlightenment”? was accompanied by similar 
attestations: 


The blind from birth received their sight; the deaf from birth 
their hearing; the cripples from birth the use of their limbs; and 
- the bonds and fetters of captives broke, and fell off. (Warren, 
BT, 83.) 


(4) Buddha, the Object of Theological Speculation. 


There have been two main branches in Buddhism. 
The followers of the “Lesser Vehicle,” inayana_ Bud- 
dhism, in southern Asia, , have sought to remain true to 
his own ‘teaching, viz., that he was only a teacher of a 


way of escape from misery, and that speculative ques- 


tions are profitless for religion. 





BUDDHISM 67 


Misery have I elucidated. The origin of misery have I eluci- 
dated. The cessation of misery have I elucidated. And the 
path leading to the cessation of misery have I elucidated .. . 
because this has to do with the fundamentals of religion, and 
tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiescence, 
knowledge, supreme wisdom, Nirvana. (Warren, BT, 122.) 


The northern branch, which has carried Buddhism 
so extensively to China and Japan, has developed cer- 
tain theological doctrines which constitute the Maha- 
yana, “Greater Vehicle.” It_sees in Buddha not sim- 
ply a, teacher who passed into Nirvana at his death, 
but a veritable divine savior: 

Pre-existent, planfully incarnate, supernaturally conceived, mi- 

raculously born. (Warren, BT, 42-46.) 

Sinless, yet suffering inexplicably. (SBE, 35: 178.) 

Entered the world with a redemptive purpose. (SBE, 21: 40, 46.) 

All-knowing and all-seeing. (SBE, 21:44, 118, 121.) 


Saviour of gods and men. (SBE, 21: 120.) 
He is everlasting. (SBE, 21 : 302.) 


Not only has Buddha been deified, but he has been 
made a member of a Buddhist Trinity. 


(5) Buddha Idolized. 


It is one of the ironies of history that he whose 
main message and very last words before dying were 
a call to a self-reliant, ethical life, as over against de- 
pendence upon any kind of a Divine Being, should 
himself be subsequently worshipped with larger and 
more numerous images than exist of any other person 
in the history of the world. 


4. The Ethics of Buddhism. 

The practical message of Buddha is in marked con- 
trast with the dreamy speculations of philosophic Hin- 
duism concerning an ineffable Supreme Being, and,\ 
too, in marked contrast with the paid priests, the 
ritual sacrifices, and the many religious ceremonies of 


68 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


sacerdotal Hinduism. One short Buddhist document, 
the Dhamma-pada, contains more than a score of pas- 
sages which enjoin self-control, self-conquest, self- 
purification, the need for unceasing alertness, and per- 
sonal responsibility for personal salvation. _ ‘ 


It j is good to tame the mind, which is difficult to hold in and 
flighty. A tamed mind brings happiness. (SBE,10:1.12.)! — 





Not even a God, a Gandharva [i. e., spirit], not Mara [7. e., demon], 
with Brahma could change into defeat the victory of a man who 
has vanquished himself, and always lives under restraint. 
(SBE, 10: 1. 31-32.) i 


Buddha had the daring of a truly remarkable re- 
former in his denunciation and reinterpretation of the — 
Hindu caste system. Five hundred years before Christ — 
and with some of the same words Buddha told the 
proud rapacious sinners of his day that the really ad- 
mirable high-class man and the really despicable low- 
down man must be judged in terms of moral character, | 
not primarily in terms of heredity or status, nor ac- — 
cording to the externals of conventional religion. 


A man does not become a Brahman by his family or by birth. 
In whom there is truth and righteousness,—he is blessed; he 
is a Brahman. O fool, within thee there is ravening, but the 
outside thou makest clean! (SBE, 10:1. 91; similarly, 10: 1.38- — 
39, 90-96; 10: 2. 88, 111-115; 13: 79-80.) : 

The man who is angry and bears hatred, who harms living beings, 
who speaks falsely, who exalts himself and despises others,— 
let one know him as an outcast. (SBE, 10:2. 21-22.) 


All the four Hindu castes are dropped on entering — 
the Buddhist Order (SBE, 20 : 304). 
Five prohibitions are enjoined by Buddha upon all 
lay Buddhists: 
Do not kill, steal, commit scene lie, or drink intoxicants. 
(Sutta-Nipata, 392-398; SBE, 10 : 2. 63-66.) 


1The references to vol. 10 in the ‘‘ Sacred Books of she East'’ are to its second 
edition. 


BUDDHISM 69 


Ten prohibitions are enjoined upon the higher grade 
of monastics. 


In addition to the previous five, the five following abstinences: 
from eating at forbidden times; from dancing, singing, music, 
and seeing spectacles; from garlands, scents, unguents, orna- 
ments, and finery; from high or broad beds; from accepting gold 
or silver. (SBE, 13: 211.) 


The main trend in Buddhist ethics isnegative, re- _ 
pressive, quietistic, individualistic, anti-social. 





Forsake children, wealth and kin. (Theri-gatha, 301; Mrs. Rhys 
Davids, “‘Psalms of the Sisters,’’ 133.) 

Let him wander alone like a rhinoceros. (SBE, 10: 2. 6-11.) 

If a disciple should desire to become converted, to be no longer 
liable to be reborn in a state of suffering, and to be assured 
of final salvation,—then let him fulfil all righteousness; let 
him be devoted to that quietude of heart which springs from 
within; let him not drive back the ecstasy of contemplation; 
let him Noe through all things; let him be much alone. (SBE, 
Il: 213. 


The acme of the Buddhist ethical ideal is reached 
in a state of perfection which is beyond the realm of 
ethics, even by him who: 


Has ceased to think of good or evil. (SBE, 10:1. 13.) 
Has risen above both good and evil. (SBE, 10:1. 94.) 


5. Other Principal Features of Buddhism. 

Buddhism did not start with the belief in an adora- 
ble supreme being. Nor is it the philosophical elabora- 
tion of a consistent system, except as a happy ending 
of a_pessimistic world view. Accordingly, Buddhism 
contains a number of features, not all of which are co- 
herently connected. 


) The Law of Karma 
The supreme power which is actually operating in 
the world is the “law of the deed,’’—an inescapable, 


er” 


7) THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


inexorable, impersonal principle of justice and moral. 
\ 


retribution. : 


Not in the sky, not in the midst of the sea, not if we enter into 
the clefts of the mountains, is there known a spot where a man . 
might be freed from an evil deed. (Dhamma-pada, 127; SBE, 
10:1. 35.) 


The blame for the consequences of a person’s evil | 
deeds must be placed upon himself, not upon heredity, © 
society, fate, God, or devil. Buddha had great faith 
in the reform which would be accomplished, if only ,; 
| people could be made to realize that in accordance 
with the law of Karma most of their troubles have been 
brought upon themselves by themselves. 


Surely if living creatures saw the consequences of all their evil 
deeds, self-visited, with hatred would they turn and leave them. 
(SBE, 19 : 158.) 


The final judgment scene is depicted as follows: 


The warders of hell drag the wicked before the king of hell, Yama, 
who says to them: “‘Did you not, when on earth, see the five 
messengers sent to warn you,—the child, the old man, the sick, 
the criminal suffering punishment, and the dead corpse?” 
And the wicked man answers: “I did see them.” ‘“‘And didst 
thou not think within thyself: ‘I also am subject to birth, old 
age, death! Let me be careful to do good works !’” And the 
wicked man answers: “I did not, sire. I neglected in my folly 
to think of these things.” Then King Yama pronounces his 
doom: “These thy evil deeds are not the work of thy mother, 
father, relations, friends, advisers. ‘Thou alone hast done them 
all. Thou alone must gather the fruit.”’ (Monier-Williams, 
“Buddhism,” 114-115; quoted from Oldenberg, ‘‘ Buddha,” 
244-245.) 


(2) The Delusion of Self. 


The fundamental subtle danger which every wise 
_ person must himself eradicate from noe ‘3s sollteh 


ness. 


BUDDHISM oi 


First banish every ground of “‘self.” This thought of ‘“‘self” 
shades every lofty good aim, even as the ashes that conceal the 
fire, treading on which the foot is burned. (SBE, 19 : 261.) 

Cut out the love of self, like an autumn lotus, with thy hand. 
(SBE, 10: 1. 69.) 


The so-called “ego” is not a genuine personality, 
but only a temporary worthless conglomeration of de- 
sires and psychic tendencies, just as: 


The word “‘chariot”’ is but a convenient designation and name for 
pole, axle, wheels, chariot-body, and banner-staff. (Warren, 
BT, 132.) 


(3) The Three Characteristics of Being. 
There is no such thing as mere existence. Accord- 


ing to Buddha’s pessimistic analysis of the universe, to 


be means to be evanescent, miserable, and impersonal. 
: Tea tate Sn aRNaeeearaatninn sisieoiit osueathk patil: wesiaienincnmaasanee” 


Whether Buddhas [2.e., Enlightened Ones] arise, or whether 
Buddhas do not arise, it is a fact and a fixed and necessary con- 
stitution of being that all its constituents are transitory, miser- 
able, lacking in an ego. (Warren, BT, p. xiv.) 


(4) Transmigration. 


The particttrr-menner-in which the law of Karma 
operates is to produce reincarnation inthis same mis- 
erable world according unto a person’s deeds. The 
problem arises, how there can be a transmigration of 
the soul when there really is no soul. However, since 
Buddha himself at his enlightenment experienced the 
sense of relief from the dreaded necessity of transmigra- 
tion, the same hope is offered to every Buddhist (SBE, 
10: 2. 58, 198; 11: 25, 213; 18: 101; 17:9). 


(5) Nirvana. 
’ The technical term in Buddhism which has become 
most familiar in English is probably the word Nirvana. 
This is represented as “the highest happiness”’ (SBE, 
Tr erence aS 


72 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


10:1. 9, 55). But scholars disagree on the question 
whether Nirvana involves complete annihilation. An 
utter extinction of personality and consciousness would 
seem to be implied by the fundamental principles of 
Buddhism and also by explicit statements of Buddha, 
such as: 

Those whose minds are disgusted with a future existence, the wise 


who have destroyed the seeds of existence, and whose desires 
do not increase, go out like this lamp. (SBE, 10: 2. 39.) 


However, Nirvana certainly does mean the highest 
conceivable freedom from all disturbances. It is 


chiefly a negative condition,-“passionless peace. 

(6) The Buddhist Congregation. 

Theoretically Buddhism, with its distinctively indi- 
vidualistic_ anti-social doctrines, would seem to have no 
place for society. Yet Buddha was practical enough 
to organize his converts into a new monastic order. 
‘The most important formula in Buddhism is the 
“Three Refuges,’ which is a convenient summary of 
Buddhism, xn which is used in the ceremony of ad- 
mitting initiates. 


I take refuge in the Buddha, the Law, the Order. (SBE, 10: 2. 37- 
40; 13: 109, 115.) 


Candidates for admission must pass the following 
tests: 


Are you afflicted with the following diseases: leprosy, boils, dry 
leprosy, consumption, and fits? Are you a man? Are you a 
male? Are you a freeman? Have you-no debts? Are you 
not in royal service? Have your father and mother given 
their consent? Are you full twenty years old? Are your 
alms-bowl and your robes in due state? (SBE, 13: 230.) 


However, women were admitted later, but to a dis- 
tinctly lower position (SBE, 20 : 322-326). The Bud- 


BUDDHISM 73 


dhist “‘church,” if such it may be called without any 
worship, is directed to meet for recitation of the words 
of Buddha and for confession. 


Every half month it behooves all to train themselves accord- 
ing thereto in concord, in pleasantness, without dispute. (SBE, 
13 : 69.) 


The 227 rules which must be repeated in the assem- 
bly every fortnight occupy the first of the “Three 
Baskets.”’ 


6. The Sacred Scriptures of Buddhism. 

The Tripitaka, meaning “ Three-Baskets~ of Wisdom, 
consists of the Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket), con- 
taining rules_£ initi i i 
class of Buddhists; the Sutta Pitaka (Teaching Basket), 
containing the discourses of Buddha; and the Abhi- 
dhamma Pitaka~ (Higher Doctrine or Metaphysical 


Basket), containing’expositions of the mtrreate-pemts 


of Buddhist psychology and doctrine. 
The language of the Tripitaka is Pali, the dialect 


of the common people in north-central India, among 
whom Buddha lived and preached. There exists also 
a large body of non-canonical Buddhist literature in 
the related Sanskrit language. The Tripitaka con- 
tains twenty-nine subdivisions, ranging in length from 
10 pages to 1,839 pages. All of it has not been trans- 
lated into English, nor even published in its original 
Pali. Under the leadership of the late Professor Rhys 
Davids of Manchester University and with the co- 
operation of various European scholars the Pali Text 
Society of London has been active on a programme of 
publishing the original documents and English trans- 
lations. The full text of the canonical scriptures, 
when completed, will probably occupy 10,000 pages. 





74 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


A translation of the Buddhist scriptures into English would be 
about four times as long as the English Bible. (Rhys Davids, 
“Buddhism, a Sketch,” 20.) 


The first English translation of any part of the Tri- 
pitaka was of the short Dhamma-pada (Way of Virtue), 
made in 1870 by the late Professor Max Miiller of 
Oxford University. Buddhism has been a fascinating 
subject to the English-speaking world even before any 
of its sacred scriptures were available in translation. 
The New York Public Library alone contains 214 books 
and important articles published on this religion in 
English before the date of 1870. That first translated 
document of the Tripitaka, and the other one which 
is included in the tenth volume of the “Sacred Books 
of the East,’’ have received high commendation. 


The Dhamma-pada and the Sutta-Nipata deserve to be read by 
all who care for the unseen riches of the soul. By their simple 
earnestness, their quaint use of parable and metaphor, and 
their mingling of the homeliest things with the highest truths, 
these books take rank among the most impressive of the re- 
sa books of the world. (Menzies, “History of Religion,” 
373. 


_— 


Another section of the Buddhist Tripitaka has 


evoked from the professor of comparative religion at 
Manchester University the following, perhaps extrava- 
gant, comparison with one of the finest Greek philos- 
ophers: 


Scholars will revere this book as one of the. most priceless of the 
treasures of antiquity still preserved to us. And it is quite 
inevitable that, as soon as it is properly translated and under- 
stood, this collection of the Dialogues of Gotama will come to 
be placed, in our schools of philosophy and history, on a level 
with the Dialogues of Plato. (Rhys Davids, “Buddhism, Its 
History and Literature,” 59.) 


The ‘Tripitaka contains some reminiscences of 
Buddha, some elaborate doctrinal expositions, and 


BUDDHISM 75 


much advice for a quiet life. Yet the canonical scrip- 
tures of Buddhism contain no complete biography of 
the founder, no report of any later leader continuing 
the work of the founder, no historic application of the 
highest Buddhist principles to the regeneration of so- 
ciety, no intimation of a creative purpose or power in 
the world, and no prophetic vision of a glorious abun- 
dant life here or hereafter. 


7. The History of Buddhism. 2% 


In India Buddhism began its life some ‘acne, 
hundred years ago. This long stretch of history has 
included some brilliant periods under devout and gen- 
erous kings, such as Asoka, Kanishka, Chandragupta 
II, and Harsha. But about a thousand years after the 
founder the Buddhists of India allowed themselves to 
become corrupt in doctrine and distraught over petty 
matters. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hiuen Tsiang, 
who made the long journey to India in 629-645 A. D., 
and who has left an important record of his visit to the 
holy land of his faith, reports that the Great Vehicle 
and the Lesser Vehicle were mutually exclusive, and 
that the eighteen main sects were wrangling about the 
size and cut of their robes. 


The different schools are constantly at variance, and their con- 
tending utterances rise like the angry waves of the sea. (Beal, 
“Buddhist Records of the Western World,” 1 : 80.) 


Accordingly, decadent Buddhism soon faded away 
before the pressure of another religion, Islam, which 
arrived in India with a God of power, a God-enthused 
founder, and a vigorous anti-idolatrous monotheism. 
According to the recent census records Buddhism is 
virtually extinct in the land of its birth. 

The first foreign missionary enterprise of Buddhism 


76 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


was conducted in Ceylon by the son of King Asoka 
about 250 B.C. The impression which was left by 
those early Buddhist missionaries is recorded in the 
Great Chronicle of Ceylon. 
As the All-merciful Conqueror [7. e., Buddha] renounced his own 
blessedness, so these renounced the happiness they had won, 
and in this place and that toiled for the world’s welfare. For, 


when the world’s welfare is concerned, who would be slothful or 
indifferent? (Mahavamsa, 12: 55.) 


In all the neighboring, countries, Ceylon, Thibet, 
Burma, and Siam, Buddhism encountered only Ani- 
mism, and now remains there quiescent alongside of 
that primitive unorganized type of religion. 

In China and Japan, geographically farthest away 
from its original home, Buddhism has won its largest 
and most active groups of followers. And here its 
doctrines have been most changed from their original 
form. In these countries it exists alongside of other 
religions, viz., the national religions of Confucianism, 
Taoism, and Shinto. In China the most popular Bud- 
dhist deity is a female, Kwan-yin, the goddess of 
mercy. In Japan the modern Buddhists have been 
adopting certain successful Christian methods; for 
example, congregational worship and singing, Sunday- 
schools for children, Young Men’s Buddhist Associa- 
tion, woman’s societies, social service and schools for 
the education of the laity. In both China and Japan, 
along with the original characteristic of general quietism, 
the Buddhists have developed certain tendencies which 
are radically inconsistent with the primitive system, 
such as a more active social and esthetic appreciation, 
the hope of salvation through faith in Buddha, a pic- 
turesque heaven and hell, and a pantheon of deities. 

Over all the Far East Buddha has succeeded in 
making the people feel more like one another than 


BUDDHISM 77 


like the people of the Occident, because they have actu- 
ally been brought under the influence of such common 
religious ideals as, that the perfect human life is a life 
of patient, long-suffering quietude; that no human in- 
dividual, much less a woman or a child, possesses en- 
during religious worth; that the supreme power in the 
world is not a person, but is impersonal; and that the 
final beatitude is for the most part an escape from life 
rather than a continually enlarging life. 


8. A Comparison of Hinduism, Jainism,and Buddhism. 

The three religions originating in India, and each 
with a history more than 500 years longer than the 
history of Christianity, are noticeably similar in certain 
respects, yet also noticeably dissimilar in other re- 
spects. 


(1) Points of Agreement between All Three Religions. 


General pessimism-—concerning the worth of human 
life in the midst of the material and social world. 

The specific worthlessness of the human body. 

The specific worthlessness of human activity. 

The specific worthlessness of the individual as such. 

A common tendency to ascetic monastic orders. 

A common tendency to sectarian subdivisions. 

No programme of organized social amelioration. 

A common ideal of the greatest good as consisting 
in subservience, quiescence or passivity, certainly not 
universally beneficial. 

A common ideal of salvation to be obtained by 
methods largely negative or repressive, certainly not 
self-expressive. 

A common appreciation of a certain religious value 
in sufferings borne, even voluntarily self-imposed, for 
self-benefit. 


78 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


A common belief in many prophets in the same re- 
ligion, teaching the same eternal doctrines of that par- 
ticular system. 

*A common belief in the law of Karma and trans- 
migration. 


(2) Points of Agreement between Jainism and Bud- 
dhism against Hinduism. 


Rejection of the Hindu Vedas, as being in the ancient 
Sanskrit language, no longer intelligible nor even avail- 
able for the common people. ‘Then the two protest- 
ing movements produced their scriptures in vernac- 
ulars, Jainism its Agamas in the Prakrit dialect, and 
Buddhism its Tripitaka in the Pali dialect; but both 
of these languages are now no longer in use, and the 
two sets of sacred scriptures are hardly available for 
their respective followers. 

Rejection of the Hindu philosophic system. Then 
Jainism produced a dualistic philosophy, and Buddhism 
produced a nihilistic philosophy. 

Rejection of the whole Hindu theistic, pantheistic, 
and polytheistic system. Then both Jainism and 
Buddhism deified their atheistic founders, and wor- 
shipped them even idolatrously, as well as twenty-four 
saviors incarnate. 

Rejection of the whole Hindu sacrificial system. 
Then both the protesting systems taught kindness to 
animals; Jainism taught the sacrifice of one’s body, 
and Buddhism taught the sacrifice of all desires. 

Rejection of the domination of the Hindu caste 
system. ‘Then both the protesting movements advo- 
cated a voluntary religious order. Jainism established 
the oldest living church in the world to-day, and Bud- 
dhism established the second oldest church. 


79 


BUDDHISM 


-iogns Ayjourysip yA fyuezodur 931nH 
“1qoid jo ys1] ‘yueqzodunun Ajoanepoy 


‘Arosnyt Ayeyeuryn $yuez10duna py, 
ALIIVUOP, FO GNIVA 


*jeo1uQ) 
‘yeoruy) 


ITV 943 ‘eoy Ayao ony, 
ThOS GWaedAG 


*BURAIIN ‘Qovad ssoTUoIsse gy 


‘syuouryoe}}e ATPpIOM 
Woy [nos jo wopooig 


‘opuguy of} 
oyUr UoT}drosqear [vorysAT[ 


NOILVATVS DONILTOSAY 


‘oyeurp 

“Apoq 94} AyWO Jo uey} J9y}e4I ‘sartsap JO 
"U0T} 

“BABS JO sUvITT Joyo oY} S410} eS1[GO 


"SuOT}TG 


“Ars 
-ssoouun AT[voI}o1094} Ysnoy} ‘euordg 


WSIOILGOSY JO GOIVA 


*jeoruy) ‘jeoruQ 
TN Te 
“u01}eU 


~sua Areioduis} v ‘Jeotup “UOISN]]I Ue ‘fearay 


TQO0S TVOCIAICNT aTHOM TVIEALV IAL 


“So.lISOp 

"solisep Jo uoissoiddns Aq poystyesun—‘jeuorouq 
“Apoq jo 

‘Apoq jo ulstorjoose AG souvIquInoUe—‘feoIsdy 
“UIST “euyeig jo 


-oyjyued jo ospaymouy AG souvsIousI—Tenq09]]97UT 


TIA 


ONINOOUAAQ 10 GOBLET TIAW 40 GHOLV Ny 


CASAL ESTE 

3 UISTUIVs 

ALIA EEG | 

:usIyppng [eyuomepung 
> UISTUTve 


:UIsIpulfyy o1ydosopyg 


:UsIyppng [eyuomepung 
> UISTUIes 


swIsInpuUlpyy orydosopryg 


‘suovbyay aaLy J, ay) Buown quawaasbosrg fo syuog (¢) 


80 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


9. Partial Similarities between Buddhism and Chris- 
tianity. 

Both religions originated in Asia, received a mis- 
sionary activity from the founder, and have become 
international. But Buddhism has not extended itself 
beyond Asia, and has not expanded geographically 
during the last seven centuries. Christianity has 
spread through East and West, has made its greatest 
increase of missionary activity in recent centuries, and 
of all the living religions gives the greatest promise of 
actually becoming universal. 

Both religions emphasize a moral life. But Bud- 
dhism enjoins a morality which is apart-from deity. 
Christianity enjoins a morality which is like unto the 
character of God, and which is to be realized with the 
help of God. 

Both religions exalt a cosmic moral law encompass- 
ing human destinies, unbribable and inescapable. But 
Buddhism’s Karma is an impersonal principle, which 
finally destroys individuality. Christianity teaches 
that the Supreme Being is a supremely perfect Person, 
who uses universal moral law to produce perfect human 
personalities. 

Both religions diagnose selfishness as the immediate 
cause of human misery. But Buddhism prescribes as 
the cure a negative self-suppression which is entirely 
self-benefiting and subtly self-centred. Christianity 
prescribes as the cure a positive love of others, which 
is altruistic and socially centred. 

Both religions teach a gospel..of—salvation. But 
Buddhism teaches the salvation of the individual apart 
from society. Christianity teaches the salvation of 
the individual and of society. 

Both religions have produced -monastic_institutions. 
But Buddhism regards the monkish life as intrinsically 


BUDDHISM 


superior. Christianity teaches the sacredness of all 
social life. 

Both religions revere their founder for a certain 
superb manner of living. But Buddha attained the 
Buddhistic ideal of ethical culture only in the latter 
part of his life, after he had tried and successively 
abandoned three other ideals, viz., the life of self- 
indulgence, of philosophical speculation, and of bodily 
asceticism. Jesus continuously, from boyhood, lived 
a wholesome joyful life with God and with men, which 
he offered as normal for all mankind. 

Both religions were started by a notably self-sacri- 
ficng founder. But Buddha died, an old man of 
eighty years, directly because of eating a heavy meal. 
Jesus died, a young man of about thirty, on the cross 
because men did not appreciate his service of love. 


/to. Radical Dissimilarities between Buddhism and 
Christianity. 

God in Buddhism is denied, except as Buddha him- 
self was deified, and then many gods have been wor- 
shipped. In Christianity there is one God, to be 
obeyed, loved, and trusted. 

Man in Buddhism is a worthless, temporary con- 
glomerate. In Christianity every human individual 
is a child of God. 

The human body in Buddhism is only a miserable 
hindrance. In Christianity it is a fit instrument for 
the spiritual life. 

Desire in Buddhism is insatiable and utterly evil. 
In Christianity the desire for righteousness 1s indis- 
pensable, and will be fulfilled. 

Activity in Buddhism is, perhaps, temporarily un- 
avoidable, but is evil and ultimately to be overcome. 
In Christianity activity is essential to holy living. 


\ 


THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Vicarious suffering in Buddhism is quite impossible, 
because of the doctrine of individualism. In Christi- 
anity suffering unjustly caused is a terrible fact, yet 
it may be used as a means of blessing. 

Sin in Buddhism is denied. In Christianity a sinner 
sins against God and against other human beings and 
against his own higher self. 

Life in Buddhism is hardly worth living, because of 
its sufferings. In Christianity life, despite its suffer- 
ings, is progressively worthful. 


ir. Elements of Strength in Buddhism. 
The urgency and assurance of its gospel. 
Its emphasis on a person’s inner attitude. 
A certain noble earnestness in its ethics. 
Self-renunciation as a condition of salvation. 
Its admirable first five commandments. 
Its teaching of a moral law. 
Certain admirable qualities in its founder. 
Its successful repudiation of caste. 


12. Elements of Weakness in Buddhism. 
Its original atheism. 
Its fundamental impersonalism. 
Its low estimate of human life and the human body. 
Its low estimate of woman and the family. 
Its low estimate of the environing world. 
Its checking of individual initiative. 
Its refusal of social responsibilities. 
Its repudiation of the idea of progress. 
*Its excessive emphasis on self-saving. 
“Its generally negative method of salvation. 
Its empty idea of a blissful Nirvana. 
Its general pessimism. 
Its loss of an original missionary aim. 
Its founder’s moral handicaps. 


V 
SIKHISM 


Tue Rewicion or Discretes or THE ONE TruE Gop 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


Chronologically, Sikhism stands the very latest 
among the eleven living religions. 

Numerically, Sikhism’s 3,239,000 adherents place it 
ninth in size. Only Jainism and Zoroastrianism have a 
smaller following. 

Geographically, Sikhism is to be found almost ex- 
clusively in the one land of India, and there, too, in 
the one province of the Punjab. Yet in less than 200 
years after its foundation it had extended itself clear 
across the north of India and southward to Ceylon. 
Most of the provincial governors of India have body- 
guards composed of stalwart Sikhs. They are also 
used for police patrols on the streets of Penang and 
Singapore, Hongkong, and Shanghai, and other Far- 
eastern possessions of the British Empire. However, 
95 per cent of all the Sikhs in the world are concen- 
trated in northwest India in the same region where 
their religion originated. 

Politically, Sikhism is the only religion in the his- 
tory of the world which has given birth to a nation, 
with the exception of Judaism... Its chief place in his- 
tory has heen political - more _than_religious,.. In its 
case, as also in the case of Judaism, political indepen- 
dence has been destroyed, while religiously and every 
other wise the people have continued strikingly able 
and distinctive. ; 

83 


84 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Architecturally, Sikhism’s central shrine, the Golden 
Temple in the Pool of Immortality at Amritsar, 


may be said to rank next to the Taj at Agra as one of the most 
striking sights of India. In the centre of the water rises the 
beautiful temple with its gilded dome and cupolas, approached 
by a marble causeway,—one of those rare sights seen at intervals 
during life which fix themselves indelibly on the memory. (Sir 
Monier-Williams, ‘‘Brahmanism and Hinduism, or Religious 
Thought and Life in India,” 175-176.) 


Theologically, there is nothing clearly distinctive in 
Sikhism. It arose as a conscious attempt to har- 
monize the two most powerful rival religions in India. 
This latest development among the world’s living re- 
ligions represents a certain fusing together of the stern 
anti-idolatrous monotheism of Islam and Hinduism’s 
vague mystic pantheism with its notorious tendency 
toward idolatry. This combination was accomplished 
through the personal religious experience and the con- 
tinued personal influence of a great irenic reformer, who 
was a contemporary of Luther, another remarkable 
religious reformer in Europe. 


2. The Life of the Founder, Nanak (1469-1538 A. D.). 


The primary sources of information are extra- 
canonical Janam-sakhis, “ Life-Stories.”’ 


(1) Religious Aspirations and Discontent Until Thirty- 
Six. 

The birthplace of Nanak is situated about thirty 
miles southwest of Lahore, the capital of the Punjab, 
on the river Ravi, which the Greek historians call the 
Hydaspes. The little village had been known as Tal- 
wandi, but in honor of this distinguished son the name 
has subsequently been changed to Nanakara, “‘Nanak’s 
Place.” His parents were common villagers,—the 


SIKHISM 85 


father a Hindu of the second caste, in the employ of.a 
Muhammadan feudal lord, the mother very pious and 
devoted. At the age of seven, when first taken to 
school, the precocious boy exhorted the Hindu teacher 
to know the True Name of God by His mercy, rather 
than study all the Hindu Vedas (8-9).! At nine years » 
of age, according to the report in a late Janam-sakhi, 
the young boy began the study of Persian, the lan- 
guage of some parts of Sikhism’s sacred scriptures (15). 
An important passage in the canonical Granth is as- 
signed by one of the biographies as the utterance of 
Nanak at the age of nine. At any rate the Sikhs do 
generally believe that, on the occasion when he was 
being invested with the sacred thread of Hinduism, 
this religiously minded boy gave instruction to the 
officiating Brahman priests concerning the spiritual 
significance of the material sacrament (16-18). 

Many incidents are narrated showing how ordinary 
-avocations were distasteful to him, how he preferred 
a life of quiet meditation and religious devotion, and 
how supernatural power was with him in difficult 
situations. Because of his aversion to manual labor 
or any physical or commercial activity, his relatives 
and friends were in despair over him; they thought him 
hopelessly useless and a disgrace to his family (21-23). 
An honorable government position with a brother-in- 
law in another town was secured for him, but he re- 
mained pensively unhappy (23-26). 

His wife and two children he left behind at Talwandi, his domes- 


tic life being unhappy. Nothing is reported | prejudicial to his 
wife. (Trumpp, translation of the “Granth,” iv.) 


Unable to eat or drink, he was sick from need of 
God (26-29). So he retired to the desert, and passed 


1In this chapter all the reference numbers are to pages in the first of the six 
volumes of Macauliffe, “Sikh Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors.” 


86 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


his time under trees in religious contemplation (29). 
He gave away to holy men money which had been 
intrusted to him by his father for purchases. He was 
punished by his father, but remained unrepentant (31). 


He used to pause, and several times repeat, “I am Thine, O 


Lord.” (33.) 


(2) The Divine Call and Commission. 


One day after bathing, Nanak disappeared in the forest, and was 
taken in a vision to God’s presence. He was offered a cup of 
nectar, which he gratefully accepted. God said to him: “I am 
with thee. I have made thee happy, and also those who shall 
take thy name. Go, and repeat Mine, and cause others to do 
likewise. Abide uncontaminated by the world. Practise the 
repetition of My Name, charity, ablutions, worship, and medi- 
tation. ... My Name is God, the primal Brahma. And 
thou art the divine Guru.” (33-35.) 

After three days the Guru came forth from the forest, went home, 
gave all that he had to the poor. It was the general belief at 
this time that Nanak was possessed with an evil spirit, and 
a Ose) or Muhammadan priest was summoned to exorcise 
10.78 (906. 


The lamentable social and religious situation which 
was prevailing at that period is described by Nanak in 
the Granth. 


The Kal (Dark) Age is a knife. Kings are butchers. Justice 
hath taken wings, and fled. In this completely dark night of 
falsehood the moon of truth is never seen to rise. (170.) 


Nanak now assumed the garb of a religious ascetic, 
a simple loin-cloth. 
He remained silent for one day, and the next he uttered the 


pregnant announcement: “There is no Hindu and no Musal- 
man 1°" (377) 


This amazing repudiation of all popular religious 
ideas was received with consternation, but was in- 
terpreted as presenting a more spiritual and inclusive 
religion (37-41). 


SIKHISM 87 


Then the Kazi (Muhammadan ruler) came, and fell down at his 
feet, and said: “‘ Wonderful, wonderful! On this one is the favour 
of God!” Then the Kazi believed. Nanak uttered a slok 
(stanza): 

**He is a Musalman who clears away his own self, 

Who is sincere, patient, of pure words, 

That Musalman will go to paradise.” 

Then the people, Hindus and Musalmans, began to say that God 
was speaking in Nanak. (Trumpp, xiii.) 


(3) Nanak’s Missionary Journeys. 


Then Nanak took Mardana, a Muhammadan, who 
had formerly been a servant. With him as a musical 
accompanist, Nanak started forth to deliver more 
widely the gospel of discipleship of the One True God 
of all people, both of the rich and of the poor (58-59). 


The Guru (teacher) arrayed himself in a strange motley of Hindu 
and Muhammadan religious habiliments. He put on a mango- 
coloured jacket, over which he threw a white safa or sheet. On 
his head he carried a hat of a Musalman, Qalandar, while he 
wore a necklace of bones, and imprinted a saffron mark on 
his} forehead in the style of Hindus. This was an evidence of 
his earnest desire to found a religion which should be acceptable 
both to Hindus and Muhammadans without conforming to either 
faith. (58.) 


The pair presented in their own person a strange 
combination of the two chief religions prevailing in 
India. They achieved remarkable success, preach- 
ing and singing together. ‘They travelled widely over 
north India, visiting many famous pilgrimage places of 
Hinduism, viz., Kurukshetra, Hardwar, Panipat, Delhi, 
Brindraban, Gorakhmata, Benares, the Brahmaputra 
River, Puri and the Temple of Jagannath, and the 
Himalaya Mountains. 


Mardana had by this time had enough of travel, hardship, and 
hunger. (95.) 


So after twelve years’ absence the pair returned to 
their home in the Punjab, but again set out for further 


88 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


evangelistic effort. The second missionary journey 
was more extensive. They went to Madras, a Jain 
temple in south India, and the island of Ceylon, where 
Nanak preached to the king and queen. 


The Guru then went to an island in the ocean governed by an 
inhuman tyrant. (152.) 


He also visited the extreme northwest of India, 
Srinagar in Kashmir, Mount Sumeru among the Hima- 
layas, and Peshawar on the frontier (163-172). The 
persistent prophet carried his gospel far westward in 
Asia, even to the heart and citadels of the Muham- 
madan world. Disguised in the dress of a Muham- 
madan pilgrim, Nanak was perhaps the first Hindu to 
make the pilgrimage (Haj) to Mecca. There his sim- 
ple preaching of the universality of God produced a 
miraculous effect in front of the sacred Kaaba stone 
(174-175; Trumpp, xli—xli). 


In due time the Guru proceeded to Medina, where he vanquished 
the Muhammadan priests in argument. Thence he journeyed 
to Baghdad. He shouted the call to prayer. The high priest 
of Baghdad inquired who he was, and to what sect he belonged. 
The Guru replied: “I have appeared in this age to indicate the 
way unto men. [I reject all sects, and only know one God, 
whom I recognize in the earth, the heavens, and in all direc- 
tions.” (179.) 


The records of his ambitious plans, extensive jour- 
/ neys, and successful preaching resemble in some re- 
spects the records of the first great Christian mission- 
re ally 


(4) Nanak’s Missionary Methods. 

When imprisoned unjustly, he preached to the 
Muhammadan official, who then released him (111- 
114). When attacked by a band of robbers, 


SIKHISM 89 


the Guru gave them spiritual instruction, and said that their 
sins would be wiped out when they had abandoned their evil 
career, turned to agriculture, and bestowed charity out of the 
spoils in their possession. They acted on his suggestions, be- 
gan to repeat the Name, and to reform their lives. (71; Trumpp, 
XVili—xix.) 

By humble preaching he converted a notorious vil- 

lain, and advised him: 


At the throne of God grace is obtained by two things: open con- 
fession and reparation for wrong. ... He did so, whereupon 
the Guru told him to give all his possessions to the poor. (47; 
Trumpp, xiv.) 


In “a country whose women were famous for their 
skill in incantation and magic”’ (73) he preached to a 
group of sorceresses and their queen. Whereupon they 


fell at the Guru’s feet, and asked how they could obtain salva- 
tion. The Guru told them to repeat God’s name, conscien- 
tiously perform their domestic duties, renounce magic... . 
They became followers of Guru Nanak, and thus secured salva- 
tion. (78.) 


He denounced Hindu ascetic practices, and offended 
Hindu susceptibilities by his own liberal practices (47— 
49, 51, 60-61, 135-136). Yet he made many, even no- 
table, conversions of individual Hindus by means of:a 
spiritual reinterpretation of Hinduism (49, 130, 145-— 
146). Similarly he reinterpreted “‘being a Musalman”’ 
(38, 40), and made many, even notable, conversions of 
individual Muhammadans (37-41, 58-59). A Jain 
priest was shocked by Nanak’s practices: 


After this the Guru launched out into a satire on the Jains. 
“They have their hair plucked out. They drink dirty water. 
They beg, and eat others’ leavings.” ... The Jain priest fell 
at his feet, and became a convert to his faith. (150, 152.) 


Once in the wilderness Nanak is reported as having ~ 
been tempted by Satan. : 


90 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Kaljug offered the Guru the wealth of the world, if he would aban- 
don his mission. “I will bring thee very beautiful women, 
and give thee the power of working miracles, and confer upon 
thee the sovereignty of the East and the West.” The Guru 
informed him that he himself had renounced all sovereignty. 

Then Kaljug in adoration fell at his feet, and took his de- 
parture. (79-80.) 


Nanak repeatedly affirmed his faith in the one true 
sustaining omnipotent God (97, 98, 101, 110, 114, 141, 
171). 


(5) Nanak’s Marvellous Death. 


The Guru, knowing that his end was approaching, appointed 
Angad his successor. The Guru’s sons had not obeyed him. 
Their minds were insincere, and they had rebelled and deserted 
him. ... Then it became known to his people that Guru 
Nanak was about to die. (187-188.) 

Guru Nanak went and sat under a withered acacia tree, when lo! 
it became green, and produced leaves and blossoms. (188.) 
The Musalmans, who had received God’s name from the Guru, 
said they would bury him after his death. His Hindu followers, 
on the contrary, said they would cremate him. When the Guru 
was invited to decide the discussion, he said: “Let the Hindus 
place flowers on my right, and the Musalmans on my left. 
They whose flowers are found fresh in the morning, may have 
the disposal of my body.” Guru Nanak then ordered the crowd 
to sing: ““O my friends, pray for me that I may meet my Lord.”’ 
The Guru drew a sheet over him, made obeisance to God, and 

blended his light with Guru Angad’s [his successor]. . . 
When the sheet was removed the next morning, there was 
nothing found beneath it. The flowers on both sides were in 
bloom. All the Sikhs reverently saluted the spot on which 
the Guru had lain . . . at Kartepur in the Punjab. The Sikhs 
erected a shrine, and the Muhammadans a tomb in his honour 
on the margin of the Ravi. Both have since been washed away 
by the river. (190-191.) 


3. The Veneration of Guru Nanak. 
(1) His Shortcomings in the Scriptures of Sikhism. 


Guru Nanak’s own words are reported in the canoni- 
cal documents, in which he makes confession, and 
pleads for mercy and pardon. 


SIKHISM 91 


The True, the Inapprehensible, the Infinite Himself does all. I 
am a sinner; Thou art the Pardoner. (Trumpp, 503; also trans- 
lated in Hastings, ERE, 9 : 183.) 

Thou art omnipresent, though I thought Thee distant. Thou 
beholdest mine acts, yet I deny them. I have not done Thy 
work, or uttered Thy name. (35; Trumpp, 39.) 

My demerits cannot be numbered! My sins are numerous, as 
the waters of the sea and the ocean! Bestow compassion! 

| Extend a little mercy! Save me, who am like a sinking stone! 
| (30; Trumpp, 220.) 

I utter calumny day and night. I am base and worthless. I 
covet my neighbour’s house. Lust and anger, which are Pariahs, 
dwell in my heart. O Creator! I remain in the guise of a hunts- 
man. In saint’s dress I meditate to entrap others. I am a 
cheat in a country of cheats. Ungrateful that I was, I did not 
appreciate what Thou didst for me. How can I, who am wicked 
and dishonest, show my face! Humble Nanak expresseth his 
thoughts. (184; Trumpp, 38.) 

I am not chaste nor truthful nor learned. Foolish am I from 
birth. (Hastings, ERE, 9:183. The original words in the 
Punjabi language are cited in Macauliffe, “Life,” 280.) 


Even in the latter part of his life, when he lamented 
the grievous religious situation in his native land, he 
lamented his own perplexity and darkness in his earnest 
quest for deliverance. 

I have become perplexed in my search. In the darkness I find 


no way. Devoted to pride, I weep in sorrow, saith Nanak. 
How shall deliverance be obtained? (170; Trumpp, 202.) 


(2) His Shortcomings in the Extra-Canonical Biog- 
raphies. 

Nanak is reported during the first thirty-six years 
of his life to have been useless, sick, unhappy, even in 
his search for religious truth. 


I first feel the pain of separation from God, then a pang of hunger 
for contemplation on Him. I fear also the pain which death’s 
myrmidons may inflict. I feel pain that my body shall perish 
by disease. I forgot God, and devoted myself to pleasure. 
Then this bodily illness befell me. The wicked heart is pun- 
ished. (27.) 

I have consulted the four Vedas. But these writings find not God’s 
limits. I have consulted the four books of the Muhammadans. 


92 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


But God’s worth is not described in them. I have consulted 
the nine regions of the earth. Having turned my heart into 
a boat, I have searched in every sea. I have dwelt by rivers 
Pee Nae and bathed at the sixty-eight places of pilgrimage. © 
179. 


(3) His Miracles in the Extra-Canonical Biographies. 

He is reported to have revivified a withered fig-tree 
(59-61), and also a withered acacia-tree (188; Trumpp, 
xlv). He revivified a dead elephant (56; Trumpp, xv), 
and a dying man (94-95). He cured and converted a 
leper (107). He produced water from dry ground (172). 
He wrought many marvels and conversions (113-114). 


set (4) Revered Immediately, even as a Divine Savior. 
The most frequent title for Nanak has been “Guru,” 
meaning ‘“‘Religious..Teacher.”’? He has also been 
designated honorifically as “‘ Chief,” or “King,” Nanak 
“Shah,” and endearingly as “‘ Father,” “Baba”? Nanak. 
During the latter part of his life he was revered as a 
saint and even as a divine savior. 


“ 


The people began to think him a god, and prayed him to pardon 
them and grant them salvation. (51.) 


__ (5) Subsequent Superlatwe Veneration of Nanak. 
“Yn the East the progress from the homage paid to a religious 


teacher to his deification is tempting and easy. In the short 
space of sixty years, between his demise and the completion 
of Gurdas’ “‘ Wars,”’ he was made by his loving followers, not only 
a worker of stupendous miracles, but the Supreme God Himself. 
“Guru Nanak is God, the Supreme Brahma.” (Gurdas, 13 : 25.) 
. . . All this testimony leaves no doubt in the minds of the 
majority of the Sikhs regarding the divinity of their inspired 
and holy Guru. (Macauliffe, “Life of Guru Nanak,” 280-281.) 


Modern educated Sikhs ascribe superlative adora- 
tion to their founder without any theological complexi- 
ties or perplexities, and even along with respectful rev- 
erence for Jesus. 


STKHISM 93 


In his character we do not find any improvement being made, for 
he was thorough in his childhood. He had no extravagancies 
to prune off, no eccentricities to return from. Guru Nanak 
presents a character thorough and consistent all around, and 
without a parallel in the history of the world. Christianity had 
not yet reached India; and we therefore do not find him any- 
where referring to it. But so far as the general tenor of his 
doctrine is concerned, it may be safely said that he was not a 

Christian, yet the noblest of all Christians. His great work 
was to have made himself beloved in the highest degree by his 
disciples; and his doctrine was so little dogmatic that he! never 
dreamed of writing, or of causing it to be written. For about 
400 years past the Sikhs have believed, and do now believe, his 
sayings to be inspired. This sublime being we may call divine. 
In Guru Nanak, whom we may well describe as a man among 
men and a god among gods, was concentrated all that was good 
and lofty in human nature. Infallible he was not, but he con- 
quered all those passions which we fight against. 


“Grave it on brass with adamantine pen! 

Tis God Himself becomes apparent, when 

God’s wisdom and God’s goodness are displayed, 

For, God of these His attributes is made.” 

(Matthew Arnold.) 

(Sewaram Singh Thapar, B.A., LL.B., “A Critical Study of the 
Life and Teachings of Sri Guru Nanak Dev [?. e., God]. The 
Founder of Sikhism,” 173-179, Rawalpindi, Commercial Union 
Press, 1904.) 


4. The Sacred Scriptures of Sikhism. 


The title ““Granth” is a common noun derived ulti- 
mately from Sanskrit, meaning “book.” But as a 
technical term it is used to designate “The Book” pre- 
eminently. It is an anthology of many poems, some 
of them quite short, totalling some 29,480 rhymed 
verses, arranged partly according to authors, but 
mainly according to the thirty-one different metres 
used. It is a miscellaneous collection of meditations 
on God and exhortations on life, somewhat like the 
Hebrew Psalms and Wisdom literature. The “Origi- 
nal Granth,” Adi Granth, was compiled in 1604, by 
the fifth Guru from material which had come down 


} 
v4 


94 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


from Nanak and the intervening teachers. Subse- 
quently there have been added a few short pieces by 
the ninth and tenth Gurus. The text as printed at the 
Government Press, Lahore, contains 1,570 pages, and 
slightly less than a million words. Most orthodox 
Sikhs recognize as authoritative another composite col- 
lection a hundred years later, entitled “‘Dasam Granth,” 


or “The Granth of the Tenth Guru.” ~The authors 


comprised in the Adi Granth number thirty-seven. In 
addition to seven of the ten official heads of the Sikh 
Church, they include various Sikh bards and also 
Muhammadan and Hindu “saints,” Bhagats. Two of 
the latter are Kabir and Ramananda, who started re- 
form movements recognized as Hindu sects. The lan- 
guages contained within the Granth are six in number, 
viz.: Punjabi, Multani, Persian, Prakrit, Hindi, and 
Marathi, besides several varieties of dialect. Thus the 
sacred scriptures of Sikhism are composed in a larger 
variety of languages than is the case in any other re- 
ligion in the world. The latest translator into English 
estimates that there are not ten persons living who are 
able to read the entire Granth in its original text in- 


telligently. 


Of these, few or none is capable of giving an English interpreta- 
tion. ... The Granth Saheb thus becomes the most difficult 
work, sacred or profane, that exists. (v—vi.) 


Absolute authority is ascribed to the Granth by the 
Sikhs. Yet “The Book” has been practically neglected. 
At least 90 per cent of the Sikhs do not know the con- 
tents of their sacred scriptures. At the same time the 
Granth is treated with a reverence which is virtual 
idolatry. The most common designation for it is 
“Granth Saheb,” which means “Lord Book.” Actu- 
ally, at the central shrine of Sikhism at Amritsar, 


SIKHISM 95 


although the temple is free from images, and is dedicated to the 
one God, . . . a visible representation of the invisible God is 
believed to be present in the sacred book. The Granth is, in 
fact, the real divinity of the shrine, and is treated as if it had 
a veritable personal existence. Every morning it is dressed out 
in costly brocade, and reverently placed on a low throne under 
a jewelled canopy. Every evening it is made to repose for the 
night in a golden bed within a consecrated chamber, railed off 
and protected from all profane intrusion by bolts and _ bars. 
(Monier-Williams, ‘“‘Brahmanism and Hinduism, or Religious 
Thought and Life in India,” 177.) 


At one side of the temple another copy of the book 
is read entirely through every day by relays of temple 
officials intoning, among others of its teachings, the 
passage: 

Why worship any one who is born and dieth! 


Remember the one God, who pervadeth sea and land. 
(Macauliffe, ‘‘Life of Guru Nanak,” p. 280.) 


The Hindu reformer, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, 
founder of the Arya Samaj, which is the most extensive 
religious reform started in all India during the nine- 
teenth century, criticised especially this feature of the 
Sikh worship: 


Though they perform no idol-worship, they worship their Granth 
more idolatrously. Is it not idolatry? Idolatry is bowing 
down to, or worshipping, any material object. They have done 
exactly the same things as the idolaters, who have made their 
idolatry a very lucrative business. Just as the idolaters exhibit 
their idols to the people at large and receive presents for their 
gods, so do the followers of the religion of Nanak worship the 
Granth, allow it to be worshipped, and receive presents for it. 

| (“Satyartha Prakash,” English translation, 63.) 


s. The Conception of the Supreme Being in Sikhism. 


' Mystic monotheism was the chief theoretical teach- 
ing of the founder, and has been of his followers ever 
since. Nanak’s first utterance, when he felt the divine 
call, constitutes now the first two sentences in the 





96 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


sacred scriptures, and is prescribed as the first utter- 
ance for every Sikh every day: 


There is but one God, whose name is True, Creator, devoid of fear 
and enmity, immortal, unborn, self-existent, great and bounti- 
ful. The True One was in the beginning. The True One is, 
was, and also shall be. (35, 195.) 


Mystic rhapsodies on God bulk large in the Granth, 
much more so than in the sacred scriptures of any 
other religion in the world. The unity of the Supreme 
Being is a doctrine which is frequently proclaimed in 
the Granth, even as also in the Koran and the Upan- 
ishads. 


The Lord is one. There is none other, my brethren! (149; 
Trumpp, 589.) 

Thou hast no partner who is brought near. (Trumpp, 431.) 

Whom shall I call the second? There is none! In all is that one 
Spotless Supreme. (Trumpp, xcvili, 320.) 

Like Thee there is no other. Thou art in all ages the only One. 
Always, always Thou art One. Without Thee there is no 
other. (Trumpp, 17.) 


The sovereignty of God is absolute and inscrutable. 
- Nanak might have taken this doctrine almost verbatim 
from the Koran, or from certain scriptures in Hin- 
duism: 


Imprisonment and release is made by Thy decree. Nobody can 
interfere with it. (209; Trumpp, 8.) 

He doeth what pleaseth Himself. No order may be issued to 
Him. He is King, the King of kings. All remain subject to 
His will. (212; Trumpp, 10.) 

As it pleaseth God, He directeth them by His orders. He be- 
holdeth, but is not seen by them. (213; Trumpp, 11.) 

What is pleasure to Thee, that exists. What Thou thyself doest, 
that is done. What is pleasing to Thee, that will be done. 
(Trumpp, 17.) 


Many names may be used for God on account of 
His manifold manifestations, although ultimately He 
is unitary. In this respect also may be seen Nanak’ s 


i a at 
a Pi 


a 
q 


SIKHISM 97 
effort to syncretize Muhammadanism and Hinduism. 


The Granth uses for the Supreme Being Muhamma- 
dan names Allah and Khudda “the Glorious,’ inter- 
changeably with the names and descriptions of some 
of the Hindu deities, e. g., Brahma, Param Brahma or 
“the Supreme Brahma,’’ Parameshvar “the Supreme 
Lord,” Hari “the Kindly,” Rama, Govind, and Na- 


rayan. 


Thou, O Lord, art One. But many are Thy manifestations. 
(310; Trumpp, 504, similarly 400.) 


Another simple, vital designation for deity which is 


used by Nanak is “Guru” (Teacher). Thus Sikhism , 


is unique among the religions of the world in the fact | 


that its sacred scriptures refer to the Supreme Being > | 
as ““Teacher.”” And the very name which is used for, * 


the religion, “Sikh,” denotes that its followers should 
be “pupils”’ or “disciples.” 

The chief designation for the deity in Sikhism is 
“Sat Nam,” meaning “True Name.”’ These two words 
are the first two words in the text of the sacred scrip- 
tures. They recur at the beginning of each hymn in 
the Granth and frequently throughout the book. 
They are used mystically as an efficacious saving for- 
mula. The phrase is itself venerated mystically, as if 
it were a pantheistic kind of deity. 


The Guru was asked why the words “Sat Nam’’—the True Name 
—were always written as an introduction to his hymns. He 
replied: ‘““The Name is the God of all gods... . The Guru’s 
Sikhs worship the True Name, and thus remove all obstacles 
to salvation. Accordingly the prefatory words, ‘the True 
Name,’ are written in all compositions.” (138.) 

They who forget the Name, go astray. ... How can a man be 
saved without the Name? (149; Trumpp, 589.) 

I abide in the Name, and the Name abideth in my heart. (135; 
Trump, 77.) 


98 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


6. The Conception of the World and of Man. 


In comparison with the omnipotent and eternal God 
the world is vain and transitory. 


With whom contract friendship? The whole world passeth away. 
Except Thee, O God, everything is thoroughly false. 
(131, 231; Trumpp, 642.) 
The affairs of this world are transitory, only for four days. We 
must assuredly proceed onwards. ... This world is an illu- 
sion. (188-189.) 


In comparison with the omnipotent and eternal God 
man is a helpless, submissive creature. 


Nanak is His slave; He is the Supreme God. (Trumpp, 644.) 

As long as man thinks that anything is done by him, he gets no 
happiness whatever. (Trumpp, 400.) 

By God’s order all were produced. By God’s order they perform 
their functions. By God’s order they are in the power of 
death. By God’s order they are absorbed in the True One. 
Nanak! What pleaseth God, shall happen. There is nothing 
whatever in the power of His creatures. (135; Trumpp, 78.) 

If it pleases Him, then He gives honour. If it pleases him, then 
He inflicts punishment. What is pleasing to Him, that is done. 
Nanak says: What is man? (Trumpp, 585.) 


7. The Method of Salvation. 


The Sikh religion teaches that salvation consists in 
knowing God, or in obtaining God, or in being ab- 
sorbed into God. The general method of salvation is 
fairly consistent with the fundamental doctrine of the 
supremacy of an inscrutable God, and with the accom- 
panying doctrines of the worthlessness of the world and 
the helplessness of man. 


Divine knowledge is not sought by mere words. ... By God’s 
grace man obtaineth it... . If the Kind One looks with kind- 
ness, then is the true Guru obtained. (223; Trumpp, 638.) 

The worshippers on whom God bestoweth kindness, worship 
Him. ... The Kind One saveth those on whom He looketh 
with favour. (57, 224; Trumpp, 638.) 


SIKHISM 99 


This doctrine of salvation by the grace of God had 
been stated at least four times in the Hindu Upani- 
shads, viz., Katha, 2:20; Svetasvatara, 1:6; 3:20; 
Mundaka, 3 : 2, 3. 


He himself createth, and He himself again destroyeth. Some 
have chains on their necks, and some ride on many horses. It 
is God who causeth to act, and who acteth himself. To whom 
shall I cry out? (248; Trumpp, 652.) 


This idea of absolute submission before the world 
potentate was the distinctive method of salvation in 
Islam. 


By whom his own self is known as “‘so ’ham”’ [7. e., I am that 
SS a he believes in the secret of the word. (Trumpp, 
84. 


This method of obtaining salvation by a pantheistic 
merging of the individual self with the mystical world 
soul is identical with the method of salvation which 
had been taught in the Hindu Upanishads: 


Whoever thus knows “‘I am Brahma,” becomes this All. (Brihad- 
Aranyaka Upanishad, 1: 4. 10.) 

That Soul! That art thou. (Chandogya Upanishad, 6: 8-16; 
nine times.) 


8. Worship and Organization in Sikhism. 


The main method of worship in Sikhism is medita- 
tion on God, particularly in the form of a repetition of 
the “True Name.” 


Meditation on the Supreme Being is the only religious ceremony, 
my brother. (335.) on 
The highest duty of all is to repeat the ee of the One God. iN. 
i a ea ntl ee 
The pure Name is my support. onus ‘BIT. if 
Remember the very pure name of Ram. Give up other things. 
(Trumpp, 582.) 
Repeat the Name. Hear the Name. Deal in the Name. (118; 
Trumpp, 587.) 


100 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Fix thine attention on God. Repeat His name at every inspira- 
tion and expiration. And thy soul shall be absorbed in the 
light of God. (181.) 


The absence of sacrifices and of idols has been a 
marked feature of Sikhism. This method of worship 
is in exact conformity with Islam and also with certain 
phases of Hinduism, although in direct opposition to 
certain other phases of Hinduism. 

Another important feature of Sikhism has been the 
need of a Guru or teacher as a means of salvation. 
This emphasis is strictly in conformity with the em-. 
phasis which has been made both in Hinduism with its 
veneration of many human Gurus and also in Islam 
with its veneration of the pre-eminent prophet Mu- 
hammad. 

By the Guru’s instructions to his disciples this knowledge is ob- 

tained. (57.) 
The true Guru is a boat. Few there are who consider this. And 
those who do, he mercifully saveth. (236; Trumpp, 645.) 
Day the true Guru you shall not find the way. (237; Trumpp, 


Without the Guru no one hath obtained God, however much the 
matter may be debated. (149; Trumpp, 589.) 


The Pure (khalsa) Congregation (Sangat) of Sikh 
*Disciples’’ has been another important feature of 
Sikhism. The formation of this new voluntary church 
in India was one of the definite achievements in the 
religious movement initiated by Guru Nanak. It was 
strengthened by successive pontiffs, especially by the 
tenth Guru, who ceremonialized it. This religious- 
social organization has undoubtedly been one of the 
elements of strength in Sikhism. 


9. The History of Sikhism. 
The beginnings of this religion are closely connected 
with the history of its ten Gurus. 


SIKHISM 101 


(1) Guru Nanak, before his death in 1538, found 
that neither of his two sons was qualified to become his 
successor. ‘Therefore he appointed an extremely de- 
voted disciple, a rope-maker, Lahina, whose name he 
changed to Angad, “‘ Body-giving.” 

(2) Guru Angad (1538-1552) rendered an important 
linguistic service to all the Punjab through his system- 
atic rearrangement of the letters in the old Guru- 
mukhi alphabet. He introduced another important 
innovation in that he ‘‘began to regard Nanak as the 
equal to God” (Court, translation of the *“Sikkhan de 
Raj di Vikhia, or History of the Sikhs,” from Panjabi, 
p. 11, Lahore, 1888). 

(3) Guru Amardas (1552-1574), a gentle but enthusi- 
astic convert, did much to organize, differentiate, and 
strengthen the Sikh community. 

(4) Guru Ramdas (1574-1581), another enthusiastic 
convert, centralized Sikh worship in the Har-mandir, 
“Temple of God,” which he built in a small lake thirty 
miles southeast of Lahore. This place, which he 
named Amritsar, or “Immortality,” has subsequently 
become the central shrine of Sikhism. Himself the 
son-in-law of his predecessor, he introduced the prin- 
ciple of hereditary succession by appointing his own 
son as the next Guru of Sikhism. 

(5) Guru Arjan (1581-1606) is especially memorable 
for having compiled the Granth. He did this from the 
literary remains of the four preceding Gurus and from 
the writings of other saints along with some of his own 
writings. He relinquished the distinctive religious at- 
tire, dressed in more costly clothing, and instituted the 
system of collecting religious tithes or taxes from all 
the Sikhs. He extended the Sikh faith vigorously, and 
met his death in a struggle against the king of Delhi. 

(6) Guru Har Govind (1606-1638) first assumed the 


102 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


sword as a badge of his leadership, built the first Sikh 
stronghold, added recruits for military purposes, and 
definitely transformed the Sikhs from a company of 
quiet religious devotees into a band of soldiers fight- 
ing against the Moghul Muhammadan rulers of India. 

(7) Guru Har Rai (1638-1660) continued military 
operations against the reigning Moghul, Aurangzib, 
and was defeated. 

(8) Guru Har Kishan (1660-1664) continued in con- 
test with the Muhammadan ruler of Delhi, Aurangzib. 

(9) Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675) was a doughty 
warrior, who in person carried the influence of Sikhism 
far afield, even to the farthest northeast corner of 
India and southward to Ceylon. He was not per- 
sonally opposed to the Muhammadan religion; but he 
spent much of his life in successfully fighting against 
Muhammadans, so that after a certain battle “from 
that day the Muhammadans never ventured to fight 
with the Guru” (“Travels of the Guru Tegh Ba- 
hadur,”’ translated by Sirdar Attah Singh, Lahore, 
1876, p. 58). Some of the writings of this ninth Guru 
were incorporated into the Adi Granth. 

(10) Guru Govind Singh (1675-1708) continued with 
the tendency to transform Sikhism into a militant the- 
ocracy. Under him Dacca, which is now the capital 
of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, became 
famed as a stronghold of Sikhism. He assumed, and 
he required all Sikhs likewise to assume, the surname 
Singh, meaning “Lion,” so that they all might be 
welded together into one valiant family of the Pure 
(Khalsa). 

For formal initiation sis the Sikh assembly or 
fraternity he instituted a new baptismal rite. The 
initiates were required to drink, and also to be sprinkled 
with, sweetened water which had been stirred in an 


SIKHISM 103 





{iron basin with a sharp sword. This nectar, amrit, is 
: supposed to confer ceremonial purity, and also im- 
munity in battle. 

Guru Govind Singh introduced another innovation 
into Sikhism, when he wrote the ‘“‘ Granth of the Tenth 
Guru,” and declared it to be a supplementary authority 
along with the Adi Granth. 

The Guru discovered that, from reading the original Granth, the 
Sikhs became very feeble-hearted. He therefore determined 
himself to compose such a Granth that, from reading it, his 
disciples should become fit for fighting. ... “After my death 
do all you people regard the book of the Granth Saheb as your 
Guru.” (Court, “Sikkhan de Raj di Vikhia, or History of the 
Sikhs,” 43, 56.) 

After the death of the tenth Guru, in 1708, after a 
series of marked changes in Sikhism during the two 
centuries under ten successive pontifis, the supreme 
loyalty of the Sikhs was transferred from the personal 
Guru to the book, the Granth Saheb. 

Upon the downfall of the Sikh monarchy the com- 
munity broke up into several feudal states. However, 
in 1765 the national Sikh Assembly, Khalsa, at Amrit- 
sar, minted coins, with the inscription “‘the world, the 
sword, and unfailing victory”; this connected abso- 
lute faith in their religion with world conquest. But 
the political organization of Sikhism as a militant 
church state became extinct in March, 1849, when after 
the second Sikh War the last independent Sikh king, 
Maharaja Dhulip Singh, made complete surrender to 
the British arms, and gave his world-famous Koh-i-nur 
diamond to Queen Victoria. Shortly afterward, in 
1858, she became Empress of India, and he embraced 
Christianity. 

At the present time the Sikhs are still proudly con- 
scious of their historic name, “the Lions of the Pun- 
jab.”” Most of them are located within the confines 


104 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


of their original ancestral home, living the lives of 
peaceful agriculturists. 


Io. Sects in Sikhism. 

There are two chief divisions among the Sikhs. 
The quietistic Nanak-panthis cling closely to the 
teachings of the founder. The more energetic Khalsa 
Sikhs adhere to the tenth Guru, Govind Singh. 

There are also five main sects: Udasis, 7. e., ““indiffer- 
ent” to the world; Suthre, 2. e., “pure”? mendicants; 
Diwane Sadhu, 2. e., ““mad saint’? devotees; Nirimale 
Sadhu, 7.e., “spotless saint” celibates; and Akalis, 
2. €., worshippers of the “‘ Timeless” Eternal. 

In all, there are more than a score of sects. Some 
differ concerning the color of their garments, whether 
white, or blue, or reddish yellow. Others differ con- 
cerning the proper length of their garments. Others 
differ concerning the propriety of shaving the face and 
cutting the hair. 


rz, A Comparison of Sikhism with Hinduism. 
(1) Points of Agreement. 
Theoretically, belief in a mystical Supreme Unity. 
Practically, great variety of designations for deity. 
A certain theistic application of pantheism, even as in 
some of the Hindu Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. 
Salvation by faith in the grace of God. 
The doctrine of Karma. 


As man soweth, so shall he reap. (124; Court, “‘ History,” 48.) 

Transmigration of souls. 

It is he himself soweth, and he himself eateth. Man suffereth 
transmigration by God’s order. (206; Trumpp, 7.) 


Man, my brother, is born in the world as a result of bad and good 
acts. (335.) 


SIKHISM 105 


Great importance in repeating prescribed prayers or 
formulas (mantras). 


(2) Points of Disagreement. 
Hindu caste repudiated in favor of unity among all 


Sikhs. 


Castes and no caste do not please Him, if He makes one great. 
(Trumpp, 75.) 

Castes are but raillery. (Trumpp, 114.) 

If a beggar at the gate raises a cry, the Lord hears it in His pal- 
ace, and does not ask after his caste; for, in the other world 
there is no caste. (Trumpp, 494.) 


Hindu idolatry repudiated in favor of worship of the 
Formless One. 

The Hindus have forgotten God, and are going the wrong way. . . - 
The ignorant fools take stones, and worship them. O Hindus, 
how shall the stone which jitself sinketh, carry you across? 
(326.) 

My brethren, you worship goddesses and gods. What can you 


ask them? And what can they give you? Even if a stone be 
washed with water, it will again sink in it. (336.) 


Hindu polytheism repudiated, in favor of a monistic 
pantheism. 
Hindu pilgrimages, ritualism, and hermit asceticism 
repudiated, in favor of pure worship of the Pure One. 
Man is led astray by the reading of words. Ritualists are very 
proud. What availeth it to bathe at a place of pilgrimage, if 
the filth of pride be in the heart? (272.) 
He who worshippeth stones, visiteth places of pilgrimage, dwelleth 


in forests, renounceth the world, wandereth and wavereth,— 
how can his filthy mind become pure? (339.) 


Hindu scriptures repudiated, in favor of the Sikh 
scriptures. 
A fetter is the Veda, dispute and pride. (Trumpp, 584.) 


Hindu degradation of women repudiated, in favor 
of a higher regard for women. 


106 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Hindu infanticide repudiated, in favor of a more 
vigorous populating. 

Hindu vegetarianism repudiated, in favor of a more 
vigorous meat-eating. . 


12. A Comparison of Sikhism with Islam. 

(1) Points of Agreement. 

Unity of the Supreme Personal Being. 

Sovereignty of the Supreme Absolute Ruler. 

A certain mercifulness attributed to the inscrutable 
deity, along with an uncomplainable arbitrariness. 

Salvation through submission to God. 

Worship through repetition of the name of the deity. 

Great importance in repeating prescribed prayers. 

Devotion to the founder as God’s prophet. 

Extreme reverence for sacred scripture. 

The first section in the sacred scripture, a kind of 
Lord’s Prayer, composed by the founder at a crisis in 
his early life when seeking for God, and subsequently 
prescribed for daily repetition by all his followers. 

A series of subsequent leaders after the original 
founder. , 

A long, powerful, militaristic church state. 

Unity among believers, despite subsequent sects. 

A very important central shrine,-—Mecca and Am- 
ritsar. 

Vehement denunciation of idolatry. 


(2) Points of Disagreement. 


Sikhism’s founder not so ruthless or violent as 
Islam’s. 

Sikhism’s deity not so ruthless or violent as Islam’s. 

Sikhism’s sacred scriptures ascribed to many teach- 
ers, at least thirty-seven; not to one, as in Islam. 


SIKHISM : S072 


No fasting prescribed to Sikhs; as to Moslems in 
month of Ramadan. 

No decisive judgment-day nor joyous paradise in 
Sikhism, as in Islam. 


13. Elements of Strength in Sikhism. 


The strong reforming and peacemaking effort of the 
founder. 

The enthusiastic and successful missionary activity 
of the founder. 

The strongly monotheistic teaching. 

The teaching that to be a religionist means to be a 
learner. 

The strong organized solidarity of the adherents in 
their congregation, despite their subordinate sects. 


14. Elements of Weakness in Sikhism. 


The largely mystical character of its Supreme Being. 

The repetitiousness and mystical contentlessness of 
its worship. 

The conception of the world as not worthful. 

The attitude of almost helplessly submissive fatal- 
ism. 

The heterogeneous and almost inaccessible contents 
of its sacred scripture, the Granth. 

The virtually idolatrous worship of the book, the 
Granth. 

The present generally self-centred condition of the 


Sikhs. 


vI 
CONFUCIANISM 


Tue RELIGION OF SOCIAL PROPRIETY 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


Confucianism has been the chief religion of the old- 
est self-governing nation now living in the world. 
Some authorities claim that Confucianism can hardly 
be classified as a religion, but rather as an ethic, be- 
cause the founder discouraged belief in a personal God 
and the practice of prayer, and common worship of 
the Supreme Being. However, it has always taught, 
not only the existence of a Supreme Being, but also 
divine supervision over the world. There has always 
been official worship of the Supreme Being, until that 
ancient practice was discontinued in 1915 by the 
newly established Republic of China. Confucianism, 
has indeed prevented the common people from ap, 
proaching the Supreme Ruler of the world, any more 
than they would be allowed to approach the emperot, 
of China; but it has taught them to worship various 
other beings. It has functioned as a religion, ubblency 
may have been its degree of efficiency. 

The secret of China’s long vitality has been ‘eipions 
strength. An enormous man-power might, under a 
different ideal of life, have been made to produce sur- 
passing military strength. But religion in China has 
never recognized the military class as the highest social 
rank. The secret of China’s long life has not been 
isolation from the rest of the world. At several periods | 

108 


CONFUCIANISM 109 


that nation has undergone humiliating subjection from 
foreign nations, and its actual isolation has tended 
toward stagnation rather than toward progress. The 
secret of China’s long vitality has not been some pe- 
—culiar form of political government, for that has never 
been strong. China possesses great natural resources 
in fields, forests, and mines; but these have never been 
properly utilized. Until 1905 a remarkable system of 
examinations in the Confucian scriptures was the basis 
of appointment to civil service; yet that system was 
chiefly memorizing, and popular education has never 
existed in China. 

Confucianism has enabled China to demonstrate, on 
a larger scale than has been done before in human his- 
tory, the abundant success of the principle of filial 


obedience under_a_religious sanction, as formulated by. 


Moses. 


Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in 
the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. (Exodus 20: 12.) 


The comparative statement might almost be made 
-hat in no other religious group has there been such 
actual insistence upon the principle of every individual 
performing properly his several and reciprocal social 
juties. According to the Confucian “Book of His- 
tory,” the record of China’s history goes back to a date 
which, in the Christian calendar, is to be identified as 
9356 B.C. At that early period social justice, com- 
munal welfare, and governmental responsibility for the 
common people are represented as going hand in hand 
with religious belief and worship. 

The state religion of China had flourished thus for 
1,800 years, yet it had not been organized into a system 
of teachings until about 500 years before Christ. Then 
in a period of special depression, there arose a great 


110 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


teacher whose name has subsequently been given to 
this previously unnamed religion. 


Again the world fell into decay, and principles faded away. _Per- 
verse speakings and oppressive deeds waxed [rife again. There 
were instances of Ministers [of State] who murdered their rulers, 
and of sons who murdered their fathers. Confucius was afraid, 
and [undertook a work of reform]. (Mencius, 3: 2. 9. 7-8.) 


2. Life of the Founder, Confucius (551-479 B. C.). 


More details about the life of Confucius are con- 
tained in the “Analects” than are known about any 
other founder of a religion. 


(1) Humble Youth (Aged 1-21). 


Confucius was born and buried in the province of 
Shantung, which district has since been regarded by 
the Chinese as their holy land. He was the youngest 
child and the only able-bodied son among eleven chil- 
dren. They were left fatherless even before his birth, 
and he was obliged to work hard in order to help sup- 
port the family (9: 6. 3).! 


At fifteen I had my mind bent on learning. (2:4. 1.) 


He was married at nineteen. No reference to his 
wife is to be found in any of the Confucian scriptures, 
except that Confucius reprimanded his son for mourn- 
ing the death of his mother (SBE, 27: 122, n. 2; 27: 131, 
n. 2). Confucius was austere toward his only son 
(16:13. 1-5). He was exemplarily faithful in his first 
employed position (Mencius, 5 : 2. 5. 4). 


(2) A Successful Teacher (Aged 21-51). 


The private school which he started grew till he had 
8,000 pupils. He was so generous that he never turned 


1 The reference numbers in this chapter are to the “Analects,” 


CONFUCIANISM 111 


away a poor pupil who was in earnest (7:17). But he 
required studiousness (7:8). He had varied interests 
‘and subjects of teaching: history, poetry, literature, 
‘proprieties, government, natural science, music (7 : 17, 
QA, 31; 8:8. 1-3; 16:13. 1-3; 17:9. 1-7). The sub- 
jects which he avoided were prodigies, feats of strength, 
disorder, and the supernatural (7:20). He had special 
pride in those pupils who displayed abilities: virtuous, 
oratorical, administrative, and literary (11: 2. 2). 


(3) A Successful High Official (Aged 51-55). 

The famous local sage was appointed chief magis- 
trate of the town. He was advanced successively to 
become assistant supermtendent of works and chief 
justice of the state. Both in internal administration 
and in interprovincial affairs Confucius was success- 
ful in obtaining obedience, peace, order, and even the 
beginnings of disarmament. He declared that the 
prime requisite in government should be, not revenue, 
but proper performance of function by all persons (12: 
11. 1-3). However, some internal intrigues and also 
jealousy from a neighboring state led to his resigna- 
tion (Mencius, 622 0.-6), 


(4) An Itinerant Preacher (Aged 55-68). 


Undauntedly confident of his own ability as a social 
and administrative reformer, he sought a government 
position in another state, but unsuccessfully (13: 10). 
Nevertheless, his confidence continued in the efficacy 
of good government to secure all needed reforms, even 
the reform of human nature (13:11). He enthused his 
own disappointed disciples with confident zeal for the 
reform of society among the states of China (11: 25. 
3-5). In a casual interview he enthused a subordinate 
official with his heaven-sent mission as a righteous re- 


112 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


former (3:24). Even when in danger of his life, he 
continued confident of his heaven-produced virtue 
(7:22). Mobbed and almost assassinated in the town 
of Kwang, he yet remained triumphantly confident of 
Heaven’s protection in his mission of truth (9: 5. 1-3). 
_ Again he was put in danger of his life (Mencius, 5: 
1.8.3). Even when destitute, he was uncomplainingly 
joyful in righteousness (7:15). Though suffering 
along with his discouraged followers, he yet remained 
undemoralized (15:1. 2-3). Instead of withdrawing 
into retirement, he was determined to help save a 
troubled world (18:6. 3-4). Though sometimes dis- 
couraged and tempted, he was never deserted by a 
faithful disciple (5 : 6). 


(5) Final Literary Labors (Aged 68-72). 


During this period he completed the compilation of © 
what now are known as the Confucian Classics. Among | 
them was only one original production, “Spring and 
Autumn,” Annals of the State of Lu, which is reported — 
_as having produced a very remarkable reforming effect. — 


Rebellious ministers and villainous sons were struck with terror. 
(Mencius, 3: 2. 9. 11.) 


_.. He died a disappointed, apparently unsuccessful, old 
“man, crooning to himself: 


“The great mountain must crumble! The strong beam must 
break! And the wise man wither away like a plant! There is 
not one in the empire that will make me his master! My time 
has come to die!”’ (Legge, “‘ Life and Teachings of Confucius,” 
87-88; Douglas, ‘‘ Confucianism and Taouism,” 62; Soothill, 
“* Analects,”’ 56.) 


~His disciples mourned him for three years, one of — 
them remaining six years at his grave (Mencius, 3: 1. _ 
4, 13). 





CONFUCIANISM 113 


3. The Veneration of Confucius. 


Esteem for Confucius has risen in a very remark- 
-able manner. 


(1) Mis Own Humble Estimate of Himself. 


He claimed to be only “‘a transmitter, not.an origi- 
nator” (7:1). He was no more than an indefatigable 
learner and teacher (7:2). He frankly confessed cer- 
tain specific moral inabilities (7:3). But he hoped for 
improvement, if only he could have fifty years more 
for study (7:16). 


The Master said: “In letters I am perhaps equal to other men. 
But the character of the superior man, carrying out in his con- 
duct what he professes, is what I have not yet attained to.” 
(73 :32;) 


He confessed four shortcomings of being “‘a superior 
man” (Doctrine of the Mean, 13:4; also Li Ki, 28: 
1.°33; SBE, 28 : 305-306). He acknowledged himself 
defective in four duties, including “not to be overcome 
with wine” (9:15). However, his disciples report: 


It was only in wine that he laid down no limit to himself, but he 
did not allow himself to be confused by it. (10:8. 4.) 


(2) His Immediate Disciples’ Estimate of Confucius. 


There were four things from which the Master was entirely free. 
He had no foregone conclusions, no arbitrary predeterminations, 
no obstinacy, no egoism. (9: 4.) 


He was undauntedly persevering, even though not 
immediately successful (14:41). He was far above 
ordinary men, far above even the appreciation of ordi- 
nary men. He was unappreciably above comparison 
(19 : 23-25). 


Our Master cannot be attained to, just in the same way as the 
heavens cannot be gone up to by the steps of a stair. (19: 25. 3.) 


114 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


(3) Later Appreciation of Confucius in the “Books.” 
He was incomparably and universally supreme. 


Therefore his fame overspreads the Middle Kingdom, and extends 
to all barbarous tribes. Wherever ships and carriages reach, 
wherever the heavens overshadow and the earth sustains, wher- 
ever the sun and moon shine, wherever frosts and dews fall, all 
who have blood and breath unfeignedly love and honor him. 
Hence it is said: “‘He is the equal of Heaven.’ (Doctrine of 
the se 30 : 2; 31:3; also Li Ki, 28: 2. 53-56; SBE, 28 : 326- 
327. 


He was unequalled in the entire history of mankind. 


No! Since there were living men until now, there never was an- 
other Confucius! (Mencius, 2:1. 2. 23; again in a similar strain, 
2:1. 2. 27-28.) 


He was a model of propriety, “‘a complete concert” 
in himself, a harmonious combination of strength and 
wisdom (Mencius, 5:2. 1. 4-7). 


(4) Subsequent Progressive Governmental Elevation of 
Confucius. 

From before the beginning of the Christian era, and 
even into the twentieth century, he has won increasing 
official veneration. 


B. C. 

195 The Emperor of China offered animal sacrifice at the 
tomb of Confucius. 

A. D. 

1 He was given the imperial title “Duke Ni, All-com- 
plete and Illustrious.” 

57 Regular sacrifice to Confucius was ordered at the 
imperial and provincial colleges. 

89 He was raised to the higher imperial rank of “Earl.” 

267 More elaborate animal sacrifices to Confucius were 
decreed four times yearly. 

492 He was canonized as “‘The Venerable, the Accom- 
plished Sage.” 

555 Separate temples for the worship of Confucius were 


ordered at the capital of every prefecture in China. 


CONFUCIANISM 115 


740 The statue of Confucius was moved from the side to 
the centre of the Imperial College, to stand with 
the historic kings of China. 

1068-1086 Confucius was raised to the full rank of Emperor. 

1906 December 31. An Imperial Rescript raised him to 
the rank of Co-assessor with the deities Heaven and 
Earth. (Soothill, ‘‘Analects,” 60; Moore, “His- 
tory of Religions,” 1 : 22.) 

1914 . The worship of Confucius was continued by the first 
President of the Republic of China, Yuan Shi Kai. 


(5) The Actual Temple-Worship of Confucius. 


For at least 1,200 years, twice every year, in the 
‘temple of Confucius at the national capital of Peking, 
the emperor of China has conducted religious worship 
of Confucius, with a ritual of praise and sacrificial 
‘offerings (Douglas, “Confucianism and Taouism,” 
163-164). 

And in some 1,560 local temples in every city of China 
down to those of the third rank, the local officials twice 
every year with elaborate ceremonies, and twice every 
month with less elaborate ceremonies, have worshipped 
Confucius, offering some 62,606 animals annually on 
‘the altars (Douglas, “Confucianism and Taouism,”’ 
165; Wells Williams, “Middle Kingdom,” 2 : 203). 

But in recent years the temples of Confucius have 
been notoriously neglected. 


(6) The Active Principle in the Veneration of Con- 
fucius, and Its Historic Effect. 


The main concern of the humble social reformer was 
to encourage proper social duties. He actually, dis- 
couraged prayer (3:13; 7:34) and all concern for the | 
supernatural or for spiritual beings (6:20). He would 
have been horrified at the religious veneration which 
has been offered to him, especially at the slaughter of 
‘animals in the sacrifice. However, he did explicitly 
enunciate the principle that wide-reaching service for 


116 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS | 


the benefit of men is to be regarded as a mark of ex- 
traordinary or perfect virtue (6:28), or possibly “of 
divine virtue”’ (Giles, “Sayings of Confucius,” 60). 
In its more than forty centuries of continuous self- | 
government, a stretch of history which is unparalleled | 
by any other present national administration, China | 
has produced no figure who has been so intensely ad- 
mired as this Sage of Shantung. The result of such 
devotion to him has been that the character of the 
people of China has been more nearly the creation of | 
this one great teacher than is the case with the people | 
of any other single country in the history of the world. 


; 





4. The Sacred Scriptures: “‘ Classics ’’ and “‘ Books.” 


Among the nine personally founded religions, Con- 
fucius is almost unique in being a founder who was 
also an author. The exceptions are that Zoroaster 
wrote part of the Avesta, and that Lao-tze wrote the 
short Tao-Teh-King. 

Although Confucius did not contribute a single new 
idea, practice, or experience to the inherited religion 
of his country, yet he did render a very important 
service in supplying a body of writings..which have | 
been virtually “sacred scriptures”? for Confucianism. 
Without these the old religious system probably would 
not have been perpetuated with so little change through 
the subsequent almost twenty-five centuries. 

Yet, even in respect of this literary contribution to 
the religious history of China, Confucius shows notable 
.Jack of originality as an author as well as a thinker. 
In the first group of Confucian scriptures, the five, or 
possibly six, ‘‘ Classics,’ which are indeed attributed 
to Confucius, are all compilations collated or edited by 
him; only one of them is strictly an original work. 
And that one, the Chun Chiu, or “Spring and Autumn — 


CONFUCIANISM 117 


[Annals],” is a rather dry-as-dust chronicle of his local 
state of Lu. 

The second group, the four “Books,” “Ssu Shu,” 
were written either about him personally, or about his 
doctrines by various followers, immediate or subse- 
quent. 


(1) The Five (or Six) Canonical “Classics.” 


“Canon of History,” Shu King: China’s history reviewed. 

“Canon of Poetry,” Shi King: a secular and religious anthology. 

“Canon of Changes,’ I King: a system of divination. 

“Book of Rites,” Li Ki: a compendium of proprieties. 

“Spring and Autumn [Annals],’’ Chun Chiu: a local history. 

In another classification there is also added: “Book of Filial 
Piety,” Hsiao King: a special exposition of that virtue. 


(2) The Four “ Books.” 


“Great Learning,” Ta Hsio: teaching concerning virtue. 
“Doctrine of the Mean,” Chung Yung: perfect moderation. 
“Analects,” Lun Yu: collected sayings of Confucius. 

““Mencius,”’ Meng-tze: works of the great expositor of Confucius. 


No theological doctrine of inspiration or super- 
natural authority has ever been evolved concerning 
these nine or ten books. Yet they have been actually 
the most formative single agency in the production and 
maintenance of the Chinese ideal of character. 

There have been some important writings of later 
philosophical ethicists, Moh Ti (fifth century B. C.), 
Wang Chung (first century A. D.), and Chu Hsi (1130- 
1200 A. D.). But none of these have been so much 
studied, memorized, commented upon, and made the 
basis of examination in appointment to public office as 
have the works of and about Confucius. 


5./ The Ethics of Confucianism. 

’ The fundamental practical principle in Confucian- 
ism is social propriety. This was concisely summar- 
ized by Confucius himself: 


118 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Tsze-kung asked, saying: ““Is there one word which may serve as 
a rule of practice for all one’s life?”’ The Master said: “Is not 

“reciprocity such a word? What you do not want done to your- 
self, do not do to others.” (15:23. This “Silver Rule,” as it 
has sometimes been designated, occurs in five other places in 
the Confucian scriptures: 5:11; 12:2; Great Learning, 10: 2; 
Doctrine of the Mean, 13:3; Li Ki, 28:1. 32.) 


This principle of reciprocal propriety is to be applied 
especially in the Five Relationships. 


There are the relations of ruler and subject, father and son, hus- 
band and wife, elder brother and younger, friend and friend. . . . 
No one, intelligent or stupid, can dispense with these for a 
single day. If beside these, beyond your proper lot, you go 
about to seek for some refined and mysterious dogmas and to 
engage in strange and marvellous performances, you will show 
yourself to be a very bad man. (Wang Yu-Po’s paraphrase of 
the Sacred Edict of the Emperor Kang-hsi; Legge, “Religions 
of China,” 105.) 


In general the Confucian ethical ideal is simply for 
every person to do his proper part in the immediate 
relationships of life. 

\The “Superior Man” is the specific formulation of 

the Confucian ethical ideal for the individual. This is 
deseribed at least eighty-eight times in the Analects, 
often by contrast with the behavior of the “‘mean 
man.” It is distinctly a masculine concept. The 
Analects contain no picture of a “superior woman.” 
Indeed, except for the list of proper designations for 
the wife of a prince (16: 14), the only reference to the 
female sex in the Analects is decidedly derogatory 
(17 : 25). 

Various virtues are exhorted, e.g., propriety, sin- 
cerity, faithfulness, studiousness, justice, benevolence, 
reverence, moderation, calmness, truth-seeking. 


Wisdom, benevolence, and fortitude,—these are the universal 
Sie (Doctrine of the Mean, 20:8; Li Ki, 28:2. 9; SBE, 
28 : 313. 


CONFUCIANISM 119 


But limitations are distinctly set upon certain vir- 


tues. 
: 
Have no friends not equal to yourself. (1:8. 3; also 9: 24.) 
Recompense injury with justice, and recompense kindness with 
kindness. (14: 36. 3.) 
Filial piety does not require testifying to misconduct of father or 
of son. (13:18. 2.) 


*'The ethics of Confucianism are the ethics of a digni- , 

fied aristocracy which prided itself on a long-estab- / 
lished social order, and which despised outlandish 
barbarians. No other ethical system in the world 
has so emphatically prescribed to rulers duties for the 
welfare of the people in the state. The ethics of 
Confucianism were clearly formulated in an age self- 
contained and self-satisfied. They do not contain 
provisions for problems of industrialism, democracy, 
and internationalism. 


6. The Conception of Deity. 


. Although the chief interest of Confucianism is ethi- 
cal rather than religious, yet even for its ethical system 
there is made a genuine religious postulate, viz., the 
inherent goodness of human nature as being divinely 
implanted. 

The great God has conferred even on the inferior people a moral 
sense, compliance with which would show their nature invari- 
ably right. (SBE, 3. 89-90.) 

Man is born for uprightness. (6: 17.) 

What Heaven has conferred is called the nature. (Doctrine of the 
Mean, 1: 1.) 


The tendency of man’s nature is good. There are none but have 
this tendency to good. (Mencius, 6: 1. 2. 2.) 


Every one of the Confucian scriptures makes direct 
allusion to the supreme power of the world. Three 
different designations are used. “Shang Ti,” meaning 
literally “Supreme Ruler,” is a personal designation 


120 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


which, in the “Sacred Books of the East,” is always 
translated by the English word “God.” “Tien,” 
meaning literally “Heaven,” refers to the supreme 
moral rule or order of the world in impersonal terms. 
This designation occurs about three times as frequently 
as the personal term. However, they are often used 
together and interchangeably. The third designation 
is also impersonal, “Ming, meaning “Decree”’ or 
“Fate.” The last section in the Analects connects 
ethics closely with faith in the Supreme Being. 


The Master said: “‘ Without recognizing the ordinances of Heaven — 
it is impossible to be a superior man. Without acquaintance 
with the rules of propriety it is impossible for the character to 
be established.” (20:3. 1-2.) 


However, Confucius used the personal name for the 
Supreme Being only once (20:1. 3), and that only in 
the course of a poetical quotation. ‘The evidence is 
ample and explicit that the ethico-religious system 
which Confucius organized included belief in and 
worship of a Supreme Deity, but that his own influence 
was to depersonalize that faith and to secularize its 
ethic. 

“ Numerous deities are worshipped in Confucianism, 
both in the ancient literary records and also in the 
modern actual practices. 


He sacrificed specially, but with the ordinary forms, to God; sacri- 
ficed with reverent purity to the Six Honoured Ones; offered their 
appropriate sacrifices to the hills and rivers; and extended his 
worship to a host of spirits. (SBE, 3:39.) 


Some of them, like Heaven, are prominent objects 
or forces in nature, for example, Earth, Sun, Moon, 
‘the important mountains and rivers in China. Some 
of them are minor nature spirits. Some are mythical 
or historical figures, like Confucius, and an ancient 


CONFUCIANISM 121 


Chinese emperor, Kwang Ti, who has been deified as 
the God of War, to whom there are 1,600 state temples. 
The worship of these different deities is definitely ap- 
portioned among the emperor, the various officials, and 
the people. 


The Son of Heaven sacrificed to Heaven and Earth, to all the 
famous hills and great streams under the sky, the five moun- 
tains and the four rivers. The Princes of the States sacrificed 
to the spirits of the land and grain, to the famous hills and 
great streams which were in their own territories. (SBE, 27:225.) 


7. The State Religion in Confucianism. 


/There has never been a separate priesthood in Con- 
fucianism. However, some distinctly priestly func- 
tions have been performed by the regular government 
officials. The local mandarins have perpetuated the 
national veneration of Confucius, while the higher offi- 
cials have perpetuated the nature-worship. 

The formal worship of the Supreme Ruler of the 
world, Heaven, has been conducted by the supreme 
ruler of China, the emperor, on behalf of his nation. 
This has been, perhaps, the longest-lived religious cere- 
mony anywhere in the world. The worship of Heaven 
has been conducted regularly every year after the night 
of the winter solstice, December 22, with whole burnt- 
offerings of bullocks, foods, silks, and wine, with music, 
lights, processions, and graded groups of participants. 
The ceremony took place on and around the huge, 
round, three-terraced white marble altar of Heaven, 
which stands south of the city of Peking, and which is 
the largest altar in the history of the world. The 
prayer which was offered on this occasion by the em- 
peror of China, in the year 1539, contains the following: 

The Great and Lofty One sends down his favour and regard. As 


a potter, hast Thou made all living things. What limit, what 
measure can there be while we celebrate His great name! For- 


| | 
122 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS | 


ever He setteth fast the high heavens, and shapeth the solid 
earth. His government is everlasting. All the ends of the 
earth look up to Him. All human beings, all things on the | 
earth, rejoice together in the great Name. (Legge, “The Re- 
ligion of China,” 47-51.) 

After the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty there 
was no emperor on the ancient throne of China to 
continue the annual ceremony. But the first presi- 
dent of the new republic of China, Yuan Shi Kai, con- 
tinued it in spite of the radically different form of 
political government. However, the centuries-old re- 
ligious ceremony of the worship of Heaven has quietly 
lapsed amid the new activities and perplexities in China. 
The beautiful historic altar of Heaven is being neg- 
lected, and is gradually falling into ruin along with’ 
the numerous temples of Confucius. 

The worship of Earth is another correlated, but in- 
ferior, nature-worship. It has been conducted by 
government officials annually on the occasion of the 
summer solstice, at the altar of Earth, which stands 
north of Peking, and which, symbolically, is square and 
surrounded by water. 

Worship of the sun has been conducted annually at 
the spring equinox at the east gate of the capital, and 
worship of the moon annually at the autumn equinox 
at the west gate. 

Thus at the four quarters of the year in the four 
cardinal directions from the capital, there have been 
systematic formal religious observances, conducted by 
high government officials as part of their regular duties 
of state. But all this official religion in Confucianism 
has lapsed in recent years. 


8. Popular Religion in Confucianism. 


A very definite religious worship has been prescribed 
by Confucianism for the common people of China, as 


CONFUCIANISM 123 


well as for the officials. Ancestor-worship has been 
the special and long-continued popular cultus. All 
the books covering the period prior to Confucius con- 
tain references to the ancestral temples and other de- 
tails of this ritual. In the Analects a great moral value 
is attached to ancestor-worship. 


Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to 
parents when dead; and let them be followed, when long gone, 
with the ceremonies of sacrifice. Then the virtue of the peo- 
ple will resume its proper excellence. (1: 9.) 


This practice of ancestor-worship is a continuation, 
after the parents’ death, of the absolutely devoted 
filial piety which Confucianism requires all its adherents 
to show to parents, even while they are still alive. 


Filial piety is the root of all virtue, and the stem out of which 
grows all moral teaching. Our bodies, to every hair and bit of 
skin, are received by us from our parents; and we must not pre- 
sume to injure or wound them. (SBE, 3: 466.) 

The services of love and reverence to parents when alive, and 
those of grief and sorrow to them when they are dead: these 
completely discharge the fundamental duty of living men. 
(SBE, 3: 488.) 


The condition of the dead ancestors is neither feared 
nor craved. ‘They are believed to be simply continu- 
ing in existence, hovering close around their old abode 
in the family home and around the grave. The food 
which is laid out before them on stated occasions is 
not an expiatory sacrifice, but is a sacred joint com- 
munion meal. 

Its feature of ancestor-worship effects a notable fore- 
shortening of Confucianism’s ethical demands. It more 
exclusively than any other religion in the world centres 
its requirements upon a moral life, yet teaches no great 
future judgment or any method of finally vindicating 
its own ideals of human morality. So far as an indi- 


124 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


vidual himself is concerned, he experiences no subse- 
quent advantage or disadvantage, whether he has lived 
well or ill during the years of this present life. There 
is no better form of life after death for which to hope 
and strive. In fact, a loyal Confucianist because of 
his filial piety would be horrified at the thought that 
any ancestor of his might be in hell, or that any living 
person should fail to offer worship even to those ances- 
tors who had lived wickedly. The cost of funerals and 
also of the sacrificial ceremonies in connection with 
the anniversaries of the death of parents and other 
forebears has formed a weighty part of the economic 
problems of the poor people in China. 

A high theoretical and practical regard is held by 
the common people of China, not only for the spirits 
of their deceased ancestors, but also for the innumera- 
ble spirits which are believed to inhabit the earth and 
air. Feng-shut, or fear of offending the spirits of “wind 
and water,” has been a potent factor in the practical 
religious life of Confucianists. 


_ 9. Elements of Strength in Confucianism. 
Its emphasis on morality, obligatory on all persons. 


They will even sacrifice their lives to preserve their virtues com- 
plete. (15:8.) 


Its confidence in the moral supervision of the world. 


The Master said: ‘‘ Virtue is more to man than either water or 
fire. I have seen men die from treading on water and fire, but 
I have never seen a man die from treading the course of vir- 
tue.” (15: 34.) 


Its confidence in the fundamental divine goodness of 
human nature. 
Its teaching of the invincible human will. 





CONFUCIANISM 125 


The Master said: “The commander of the forces of a large state 
may be carried off; but the will of even a common man cannot 
be taken from him.” (9: 25.) 


Its teaching of inescapable social duties. 

Its teaching of reciprocal social responsibilities. 
Its teaching of the principle of the “Golden Rule.” 
Its emphasis on the value of the family. 

Its latent universalism, even though not applied. 


All within the four seas, brothers. (12:5. 4.) 


Its emphasis on the need and value of education 
(13:9. 1-4; 17:4. 3). 


Good government does not lay hold of the people so much as 
good instructions. Good government is feared by the people, 
while good instructions are loved by them. Good government 
gets the people’s wealth, but good instructions get their hearts. 
ara 7:1. 14. 2-3; also1l:1.3.4; 3:1.4. 8; alsoSBE, 98: 
82-83. 


Its emphasis on the efficacy of the good example of 
superiors. 


The Master said: “‘He who exercises government by means of his 
virtue, may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps 
its place and all the stars turn toward it.” (2: 1.) 

The Master said: “‘When a Prince’s personal conduct is correct, 
his government is effective without the issuing of orders. If his 
personal conduct is not correct, he may issue orders, but they 
will not be followed.” (13:6; also 2:3. 1-2; 8:2. 1-2; 12:18; 
19702138). 4.33°13 9135.14 244.) 


Its founder so self-sacrificingly devoted to the wel- 
fare of the people. 


‘ro. Elements of Weakness in Confucianism. 


Its lack of a supreme personal deity accessible for 
all people, instead of to the emperor alone. 


Its actual polytheism, despite its one “Supreme 
Ruler.” 


126 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Its self-saving scheme of salvation. 
What the superior man seeks is in himself. (15 : 20.) 
Its lack of an enthusiastic dynamic; only commands. 


It embraces the three hundred rules of ceremony and the three 
thousand rules of demeanor. (Doctrine of the Mean, 27: 3; 
also Li Ki, 28: 2. 38; SBE, 28 : 323.) 


The inadequate religious basis even for its own 
ethics. 

Its negative form of the “Golden Rule”’ principle. 

Its inadequate treatment of the moral evils in human 
nature. 

Its lack of a programme for real social amelioration, 
especially for the uplift of the lower units in society. 

Its generally inferior position assigned to women. 


The woman follows and obeys the man. In her youth she follows 
her father and elder brother. When married, she follows her 
husband. When her husband is dead, she follows her son. 
(SBE, 27 : 441.) 

If no distinction were observed between males and females, dis- 
order would arise and grow. (SBE, 28:104; also 27:77-78, 
380, 439, 441, 454-455, 458, 479.) 


Its retrospective, unprogressive ideal; perfect society — 
in the past; no forward-looking creative goal ahead. 

Its inadequate interpretation and use of physical 
facts. 


Vil 
TAOISM 


Toe RELIGION oF THE Divine Way 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


Taoism is the oldest, personally founded religion in 
China. Its sacred scripture was quoted in Japan by 
600 A. D., and was expounded there before 797 A. D. 
But it has been little known outside of China. The 
standards of its followers have degenerated markedly. 
And the question has been raised, and variously an- 
swered, whether Taoism really is a religion at all. 
The first professor of the Chinese language and litera- 
ture at Oxford University declared, with regard to its 
primary scripture: 

There is not a word in the Tao-Teh-King of the sixth century B. C., 


that savors either of superstition or religion. (Legge, “‘The 
Religions of China,” 164.) 


Perhaps, as another eminent European sinologist has 
declared, Taoism did not become organized as a re- 
ligion until the Han dynasty in China, shortly before 
the Christian era (DeGroot, “The Religion of the 
Chinese,”’ 132). Taoism has had a pope ever since the 
first century of the Christian era. At the present 
time, while exact numbers are difficult to obtain, 
Taoism is reported to have 43,000,000 adherents. 

Among the religions of China it is one of the offi- 
cially recognized “San Chiao,” or “‘Three Religions,” 
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. The last was 
introduced into China about 71 A. D. So the three 

127 


128 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


have been in that country about as long as Christi- — 
anity has been in the world. They have not only co-! 
existed, but intermingled. Innumerable Chinese wor- ‘ 
shippers participate in the ceremonies and contribute ‘ 
to the maintenance of the three religions. However 
the distinctive emphases are clear. According to Con- 
fucianism, religion consists in obeying the rules of 
proper conduct between the superior and inferior mem- 
bers of human society. According to Buddhism ir 
China, religion consists in meditative world-renouncin 

_ self-discipline with faith in a personalized deity. Ac 
cording to Taoism, religion consists in a mystical fo’ 
lowing of the divine Way of the universe. The cor 
trast with the sociological scheme of Confucianism, tl 
chief religion of China, is clearly stated in the inscrj 
tion in the temple of the founder at his birthplace: 


The Three Hundred Rules of Ceremony could not control men’s 
natures. The Three Thousand Rules of Punishments were not 
sufficient to put a stop to their treacherous villainies. But he 
who knows how to cleanse the current of a stream, begins by 
clearing out its source. And he who would straighten the end 
of a process, must commence with making its beginning correct. 
Is not the Great Tao the Grand Source and the Grand Origin 
of all things? (SBE, 40: 313.) 

Among the religions of the world Taoism comes 

nearest to Christianity in teaching that a person should 


return good for evil. 


2. Life of the Founder, Lao-tze (604-517? B. C.). 
Only little is known concerning the biography of the 
humble individual who first among the religious teach- 
' ers of the world taught the principle of universal un- 
requiting goodness. The main source of information 
is a short sketch of 248 Chinese words by the Herodotus 
of Chinese history, Sma Chien, about 500 years later. 
Lao-tze was born in the province of Honan, Central 


TAOISM 129 


China, about fifty years before Confucius. Thus the 
“wo founders of a religion in China were contempo- 
raries. Lao-tze was also a contemporary with Zoro- 
aster in Persia, Mahavira and Buddha in India, and 
the great Hebrew prophets, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 
Isaiah of the Exile. He was keeper of archives at the 
court of the Chinese dynasty of Chou. On account of 
his official position and great learning the “ Venerable 
Philosopher”’ was visited by Confucius, who then was 
t irty-four years old. Lao-tze chided that historian-to- 
b. and busy young reformer, who desired to search out 
t»e ancient history of China and to restore its passing 
_ pry by a scheme of social proprieties. 

“fhe men about whom you talk are dead, and their bones are 

~¢ mouldered to dust. Put away your proud airs and many desires. 

(SBE, 39 : 34.) 

Instead, Lao-tze urged Confucius to search quietly 
and personally for the Tao, which is the mystic prin- 
ciple of the universe, and which alone can furnish the 
key to religion and life. When the young man asserted 
that he had been studying diligently in books for twenty 
yoars past, Lao-tze replied: 

If the Tao could be offered to men, who would not wish to offer 
it to his Prince? If it could be presented to men, who would 
not wish to present it to his parents? If it could be announced 
to men, who would not wish to announce it to his brethren? 
If it could be transmitted to men, who would not wish to trans- 
mit it to his children? Why do you not obtain it? This is the 


reason: Because you do not givelit an asylum in your heart. 
(Douglas, “Confucianism and Taouism,”’ 184.) 


After this interview Confucius, who later was to be 
recognized as the most famous scholar and teacher of 
all China, said to his disciples: 

I know how the birds fly, how the fishes swim, how animals run. 


But there is the Dragon. I cannot tell how it mounts on the wind 
through the clouds, and flies through Heaven. To-day I have 


130 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


seen Lao-tze, and I can only compare him to the Dragon [7. e., 
supra-mundane and unintelligible mystery]. (SBE, 39 : 34-35.) 


Lao-tze must have appeared to Confucius like an 
other-worldly dreamer, soaring among the clouds of 
his own speculations. And Confucius must have 
seemed to Lao-tze like a busybody, meddling in every- 
body’s affairs. The two most influential men of China 
were indeed different from one another in their inter- 
ests, aims, methods, and general systems. 

All that is known of the rest of the life of Lao-tze 
is contained in the conclusion of the biography by 
Sma Chien: 


Lao-tze practised reason and virtue. His doctrine aims at self- 
concealment and namelessness. 

Lao-tze resided in Chou most of his life. When he foresaw the 
decay of Chou, he departed and came to the frontier. The 
custom-house officer, Yin-Hi, said: “‘Sir, since it pleases you to 
retire, I request you for my sake to write a book.” There- 
upon Lao-tze wrote a book of two parts consisting of five thou- 
sand and odd words, in which he discussed the concepts of 
reason and virtue. Then he departed. No one knows where 
he died. (Carus, “Canon of Reason and Virtue,” 71-72.) \ 


? 
P 


3. The Character of Lao-tze. 

According to Confucianism the guiding principle off . 
life is appropriate reciprocity; so, if a man has done 
an injury, he should be punished with exact retribu- 
tive justice. : 


Recompense injury with justice, and recompense kindness with © 
kindness. (Analects of Confucius, 14 : 36.) 


But according to Lao-tze an injury should be met 
by a superior goodness. 


Recompense injury with kindness. (TTK, 63: 2.) 

To those who are good to me, I am good. And to those who are 
not good to me, I am also good. And thus all get to be good. 
To those who are sincere with me, I am sincere. And to those 
who are not sincere with me, I am also sincere. And thus all — 
get to be sincere. (TTK, 49: 2.) 


TAOISM 131 


This avowal of personal conduct, according to the 
principle of universal unrequiting goodness, has never 
been equalled among the founders of the non-Christian 
religions. However, under circumstances more trying 
than those which troubled Lao-tze, Jesus taught and 
showed self-sacrificing forgiveness to wrong-doers (Luke 
6: 27; 23:34). And Jesus connected this principle of 
treating other people better than they deserve, as 
Lao-tze did not, with a personal God who gives that 
‘same kind of treatment to all men (Matthew 5 : 38-48). 
According to Christian standards Lao-tze professed 
a principle of meeting evil which is superior to that of 
Confucius. Yet his actual conduct must be estimated 
as decidedly inferior to Confucius. The two contem- 
porary founders of religion in China lived in the same 
general social situation. Lao-tze also lamented “the 
poverty of the people,” “the greater disorder,”’ “‘crafty 
dexterity,” “thieves and robbers” (TTK, 57:2), the 
destructive bravado, the unthriftiness and self-seeking 
of the time (TTK, 67:3). But, instead of resolutely 
facing the evils and attempting to apply his principle 
concretely, as Confucius did, Lao-tze only talked some 
sage advice; and then he resigned from his government 
post into convenient irresponsibility, as many another 
Chinese official has done even to modern times. 


To withdraw into obscurity is the way of Heaven. (TTK, 9: 2; 
SBE, 39 : 53.) 


So he simply withdrew from the troubles of China, 
and went west. 


4. The Veneration of Lao-tze. 
The founder of Taoism was confident concerning his 
principles, although he was humble concerning himself. 
The multitudes of men are happy, so happy! I alone remain 


‘ 


132. THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


quiet. Forlorn am I, O so forlorn!... I alone appear), 
empty. Ignorant am I, O so ignorant! I am dull!... I 

alone am confused, so confused! I alone am awkward, and a 
rustic too! I alone differ from others. But I prize seeking || 
sustenance from our Mother [the cosmic Tao]. (TTK, 20: 3-9; | 
Carus’s translation, “Canon of Reason and Virtue,” 86-87.) |. 

All in the world call me great. But I resemble the unlikely. . . . | 
[However,] I have three treasures which I cherish and prize, 
compassion, economy, and humility. (TTK, 67: 1-2; Carus’s 
translation, 121-122.) 

My words are very easy to know and very easy to practise. But 
there is no one in the world who is able to know and able to prac- 
tise them. There is an originating and all-comprehending prin- 
ciple in my words, and an authoritative law. Itis because they do | 
not know these, that men do not know me. (TTK, 70: 1-2; | 
SBE, 39 : 112-113.) | 


Subsequently there has been a remarkable increase 

in appreciation of Lao-tze, even a governmental and 
theological elevation. In 156 A. D. the state first or- 
dered sacrifices to be offered to Lao-tze. In the fourth 
century A. D. there started the dogma of a super- 
natural conception of the ““ Venerable Philosopher,” or, 
‘as his honorific title has also been translated, “‘the Old 
i Boy.” Having been born with white hair, and having 
| been so precociously wise, he was declared to have been 
{ born not an ordinary infant, but a mature person, who 
' had been carried in his mother’s womb for seventy- 
two or eighty-one years (SBE, 39:35, note 1). In 
586 A. D., when the temple at his birthplace was being 
repaired, an inscription was placed, stating the dogma 
of the repeated reincarnation of Lao-tze (SBE, 40 : 311— 
313). The emperor of China who reigned 650-684 A. D. 
proclaimed Lao-tze as a former emperor. In 713—742 
he was canonized as “the Great Sage Ancestor.” At 

a later date, not exactly determinable, he was made 
“a _ member of a Taoist Trinity. The second member is 
a metaphysical principle, named Pan-ku, “the Demi- 
urge.” The third member of the Taoist Trinity is 


TAOISM 133 


another historic personage, commonly known as “th 
Pearly Emperor,”’ who was apotheosized in 1116 A. D 
(Soothill, “Three Religions of China,’’ 82-83). 

Lao-tze’s admiring followers do not lay up against 
him his own words of dejection, which he wrote at the 
time when he was withdrawing from the world into 
final obscurity and death, and which now are con- 
tained in the sacred scriptures of this religion. Rather 
do his followers believe that he who had taught them 
to believe in and follow universal goodness must him- 
self have been divine. Lao-tze did not teach a per 
sonal Supreme Being, and his teaching about persiste 
goodness to be shown unto evil people was not ful 
exemplified in his own conduct. Yet millions of his 
followers in China have recognized in their great sage 
and religious teacher an actual manifestation of the 
Divine Being. The history of China might be pointed 
to as furnishing a concrete fulfilment with regard to 
his own person of the principle which in the twenty- 
eighth chapter of his book he taught concerning hu- 
mility being ultimately recognized and exalted. 


He who knows the light and at the same time keeps the shade, 
will be the whole world’s model. Being the whole world’s model, 
eternal virtue will not miss him; and he will return home to 
the Absolute. (Douglas, “Confucianism and 'Taouism,” 195.) 


Lao-tze was, in certain respects, a wise “old phi- 
losopher,” but he was not a “suffering servant” of 
China. He gave to his religion a certain noble ideal- 
ism, but not himself. Six others among the world’s 
personally founded religions have been designated from 
names of their respective founders: Jainism, Buddhism, 
Confucianism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Mu- 
hammadanism. But Taoism has been designated, not 
from the personality or example of its greatest teacher, 


134 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS | 





but from its chief teaching concerning the impersonal 
principle “Tao.” | 


5. The Sacred Scriptures of Taoism. 


The chief literary treasure of Taoism is a document | 
which is usually attributed to the founder himself. | 
The title, “‘“T'ao-Teh-King,” has been treated variously 
by more than a dozen English translators. Usually it 
is left untranslated, being cited in its original form as 
a compound of three Chinese nouns. It has been 
translated as “‘The Classic of Tau and of Virtue” 
(Chalmers), ““The Book of the Path of Virtue”’ (Old), 
“The Providential Grace Classic’? (Parker), “‘The 
Principle of Nature and Its Attributes” (Balfour), 
“Thoughts on the Nature and Manifestations of God” 
(Alexander). Perhaps as simple and exact a render- 
ing as any is “Canon of Reason and Virtue”’ (Carus). 

The work of translating this sacred scripture of 
Taoism, even into half a dozen European languages, 
has proved difficult, but fascinating. It was translated 
into Latin in 1788 A. D., by the Roman Catholic mis- 
sionary, Father Gramont, with the erroneous belief 
that “the Mysteries of the Most Holy Trinity and of 
the Incarnate God were anciently known to the Chinese 
nation”’ (SBE, 39: xii). The earliest translation of the 
Tao-Teh-King into a modern European language was 
into French, in the year 1823, by Father Remusat, under 
the title “Memoirs on the Life and Opinions of Lao- 
Tze, a Chinese Philosopher of the Sixth Century before. 
Our Era, Who Professed the Opinions Commonly At- 
tributed to Pythagoras, to Plato, and to their Disciples.” 

That French translation of the Tao-Teh-King 
startled the scholars of Europe by its report that the 
word “Jehovah,” which was the special name for | 
deity among the Hebrews, had been found in the four- 


TAOISM 135 


teenth chapter of the book of this Chinese philosopher 
of the sixth century B. C. 

~The contents of the Tao-Teh-King are a series of 
unsystematically arranged generalizations and coun- 
sellings. Besides the three chapters which contain auto- 
biographical allusions (TTK, 20 : 3-9; 67 : 1-2; 70 : 1-2) 
and a few general references to the contemporary social 
situation, there are no historical references whatsoever, 
either to specific persons or to any events in China. 
In all the eighty-one brief chapters of the book there 
occurs not a single proper name. 

The history of the Tao-Teh-King has included some 
notable appreciations of its importance. The Emperor 
Ching Ti (156-140 B. C.), first officially recognized it 
as a “Classic.” The Emperor Ming Ti (227-239 A. D.) 
used to deliver lectures on this rather dry book to his 
assembled ministers of state, with a severe reprimand 
to “any official who either stretched, yawned, or ex- 
pectorated during the discourse” (H. A. Giles, “Con- 
fucianism and Its Rivals,” 181; L. Giles, “Sayings of 
Lao-Tze,”’ 13). 


By successive edicts the Tao-Teh-King was made obligatory at 
the examination for graduates of the second degree; every one 
was required to possess a copy of the work; and it was cut on 
stone at both capitals. Later on printed copies were distrib- 
uted to all directors of education; and it was translated into 
the language of the Nu-chen Tartars. (Giles, “Sayings,” 13.) 


The monument of the Nestorian Christians in Hsi- 
an-Fu, province of Shen-si, China, shows that before 
781 A. D. they were acquainted with the Tao-Teh- 
King. Modern western translators and comparers of 
religion have expressed high estimates of the intrinsic 
value of the Tao-Teh-King. 


A work so recondite, and yet so clear and simple, . . . so sur- 
prising an accordance with the latest teachings of philosophy 


136 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


and science ... Its precision, its analysis, its teachings, and 
its methods are above praise. And in purity it is spotless. 
(Heysinger, “‘The Light of China, the Tao-Teh-King,”’ 5, 8.) 

Nothing like this book. . . . So lofty, so vital, so restful, at the 
roots of strength; in structure as wonderful as in its spirit. 
Terse aphorism of a mystical and universal wisdom. (Rev. 
Samuel Johnson, in a three-volume study, “Oriental Religions 
and Their Relations to Universal Religion: China,” 862.) 


A German treatise by I. Hesse on “‘Lao-tze, A Pre- 
Christian Witness to Truth,” contains a list of sixty- 
eight parallels between verses in the Tao-T'eh-King and 
verses in the Bible (Basel, Missionsbuchhandlung, 
1914). 

_ Another much later Taoist scripture is the Tai- 
Shang Kang-Ying Pien, “Tractate of Actions and 
Their Retributions.”” This is second only to the 
Tao-Teh-King in the estimate of the Taoists themselves 
and also for students of the world’s living religions for 
the reach of its ethical ideals. Along with some 
crudely primitive teachings it contains some passages 
which, for ethical worth, are unsurpassed among the 
non-Christian religions. Several parallels from the 
Bible might be adduced for the following description 
of “the Good Man.” 


He will not tread in devious by-ways. He will amass virtue, and 
accumulate deeds of merit. He will feel kindly towards all 
creatures. He will be loyal, filial, loving to his younger brothers, 
and submissive to his elder. He will make himself correct, and 
so transform others. He will pity orphans, and compassionate 
widows. He will respect the old, and cherish the young. Even 
the insect tribes, grass and trees he should not hurt. He 
ought to pity the malignant tendencies of others; to rejoice over 
their excellencies; to help them in their straits; to rescue them 
from their perils; to regard their gains as if they were his own, 
and their losses in the same way; not to publish their short- 
comings; not to vaunt his own superiorities; to put a stop to 
what is evil, and exalt and display what is good; to yield much, 
and take little for himself; to receive insult without resenting it, 
and honor with an appearance of apprehension; to bestow 
favors without seeking for a return, and to give to others with- 


TAOISM 137 


out any subsequent regret. This is what is called a good man. 
All other men respect him. Heaven in its course protects him. 
Happiness and emolument follow him. All evil things keep far 
from him. What he does, is sure to succeed. He may hope to 
become immaterial and immortal. (SBE, 40 : 237-238.) 


However, this second sacred scripture of Taoism 
also teaches a long series of important and trivial 
commands: 


Never divulge the faults of your parents. Never confuse right 
and wrong. Don’t reward the unrighteous. Don’t punish the 
innocent. Don’t scold the wind, nor abuse the rain. Don’t 
listen to what your wife and concubines say. Don’t disobey 
the instructions of your father and mother. Don’t let new 
things make you forget the old. Repay what you have bor- 
rowed. Don’t seek to obtain anything beyond the lot appointed 
you by Heaven. Don’t use a short foot or an unfair measure, 
a light balance, or a small pint. Don’t sing and dance on the 
last day of the month, or on the last day of the year. Don’t 

_ shout or get angry on the first day of the month, or in the 
morning. Don’t weep or spit toward the north. Don’t spit 
toward shooting stars. Don’t point at a rainbow. If a man 
who has done wrong repents and corrects himself, if he abstains 
from evil deeds, and accomplishes all sorts of good works, he 
will at length obtain joy and felicity. Why then do we not 
force ourselves to do good? (Douglas, “‘Confucianism and Taou- 
ism,” 260-271.) 


6. The Central Concept, “‘ the Tao.” 


The primary etymological meaning is clearly that 
“Tao” as a common noun designates “ Way,” “‘ Path,” 
*Road.”? The same Chinese word, “Tao,” in its sim- 
plest, untechnical meaning occurs in the name of an- 
other of the world’s living religions, Shinto, or “Shin- 
tao,’ meaning “The Way of the Gods.” Christianity 
also was first referred to simply as ““The Way” (Acts 
972. 19:9; 19: 23; 22:4; 24:14; 24: 22). 

The Confucian scriptures also use this same religious 
idea to indicate the “way” of the perfect human re- 
ligionist and, too, the “method” of the Supreme Being. 


1388 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


the Path (Tao): What you do not like when done to your- 
self, do not do unto others. (Doctrine of the Mean, 13: 3.) 
The way of Heaven (Tien-tao) is to bless the good and make the 
bad miserable. (SBE, 3:90.) 


At least three different meanings of “Tao” have 
been developed from the primary idea of “way,” viz., 
the moral and physical order of the world; the path of 
reason, truth, principle; and the way of perfect virtue, 
or the right way of life which Heaven approves, and 
which Heaven itself follows. In its highest technical 
meaning “Tao” designates the philosophic Absolute, 
the religious Supreme Being. Carus always renders 
the word by the English equivalent “ Reason’’; Parker, 
**Providence”’; Alexander, “God.” 'The French trans- 
lation by Remusat uses “Supreme Being,” “‘Reason,”’ 
“Word,” and “Logos” to represent the Chinese “Tao.” 
The translation of the Christian ‘‘Gospel according to 
St. John” into Chinese starts with the first verse thus: 
“In the beginning was the Tao, and the Tao was with 
God, and the Tao was God.” 


7. The Conception of the Supreme Being. 


The chief religious teaching in the Tao-Teh-King is 
concerning one eternal, impersonal, mystical Supreme 
Being. In the whole book there is only one occurrence 
of the personal designation (Ti, literally “Ruler”’) which 
in the “‘Sacred Books of the East”’ is rendered “‘ God.” 


I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been be- 
fore God. (SBE, 39: 50.) 


The Tao fundamentally is inactive and indescribable, 
yet the Tao-Teh-King attempts to describe its activi- 
ties and attributes.! 


1 The reference numbers in this section and the next are to chapter and verse in 
the Tao-Teh-King. 


TAOISM 139 


Original, primeval, before heaven and earth, the Ultimate, still, 
formless, unchanging, nameless. (25: 1-4.) 

The one abounding sustaining source of all things. (39 : 1-2.) 

Unostentatiously producing, and sustaining all things. (51 : 3-4.) 

All-pervading, unpretentious, creative. (34: 1-2.) 

Heaven’s Way (Tien-tao) is quietly, unselfishly effective for good. 
(7: 1-2; 9: 1-2; 47: 1; 68 : 1-2; 73:2; 79:3; 81:3.) 

To be known solely by intuition. (47: 1-2; 81:1.) 

“To know the eternal is enlightenment.” (Carus, 16:4; 55:3.) 

““Possessed of the Tao, he endures long.” (16:4; SBE, 39:60.) 

The Tao is inexpressible, unnamable, indescribably great. (1:1; 
14: 1-3; 25: 1-4; 32:1; 37:3.) 

Yet, as it were, an All-father. (4: 1.) 

Also like a mother. (1:2; 6:1; 20:2; 25:1; 52: 1-2.) 

Makes its knower “‘the noblest man under heaven.” (56: 1-3.) 

Makes its knower long-enduring, his body undecaying. (16: 2.) 

Makes its knower fearless, invulnerable, immortal. ‘‘He does not 
belong to the realm of death.” (Carus, 50: 1-4.) 

Strictly, the Tao is unstriving and non-active. (37:1; 63:1.) 


8. The Ethics of Taoism. 


The ethical ideal inculcated in the Tao-Teh-King is 
a quiet, restful, simplicity, like that of Heaven itself. 
The ideal Taoist is calm and peaceful like the Tao. 
At least eight Chinese synonyms are used to describe 
the abiding admirable quietude of the eternal Tao and 
of the perfect individual. Humility is stressed re- 
peatedly. 


Heaven is long-enduring, and earth continues long, because they 
do not live of, or for, themselves. Therefore the sage puts his 
own person last, and yet it is found in the foremost place. The 
highest excellence, like that of water, appears in its benefiting 
all things, and in its occupying, without striving, the low place 
which all men dislike. (7: 1-2; 8:1; SBE, 39: 52.) 


Perhaps the two finest passages in the whole docu- 
ment are the two following: 


To those who are good to me, I am good; and to those who are 
not good to me, I am also good; and thus all get to be good. To 
those who are sincere with me, I am sincere; and to those who 


140 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


are not sincere to me, I am also sincere; and thus all get to be 
sincere. (49: 2.) 
Recompense injury with kindness. (63: 1.) 


Yet the perfect individual is chiefly placid, self-con- 
tented, indifferent toward all people and all things, 
even like the Supreme Being. 


“‘Aim at extreme disinterestedness, and maintain the utmost pos- | 
sible calm.’’ (16:1, Parker’s translation.) 

“The sage keeps his mind in a state of indifference to all.” (49: 3.) 

“There is no guilt greater than to sanction ambition; no calamity 
greater than to be discontented with one’s lot; no fault greater 
than the wish to be getting. Therefore, the sufficiency of con- 
tentment is an enduring and unchanging sufficiency.” (46: 2.) 

“Heaven and earth exhibit no benevolence; to them the ten-thou- 
sand things are like straw dogs. The holy man exhibits no benev- 
olence; to him the hundred families are like straw dogs.” (5:1; 
Carus, “‘ Lao-Tze’s Tao-Teh-King,” 99.) 


The most characteristic single phrase in Taoism is 
““wu-wel,” 7. ¢., ‘““do-nothing,” or “non-striving,” or 
“inactivity.” 

It is the condition of universal good order. (2: 3.) 

Only quiet non-striving is successful. (29 : 1.) 

Therefore, the holy man says: “I practise wu-wei.” (57:3, 

Carus’s translation.) 


Return to a state of natural simplicity which is contentment, with- 
out war, government, writing, travel, or fear of death. (80: 1-5.) 


The ethical ideal in the late “Tractate,” Tai-Shang, 
is similarly a combinatio.. of noble and ignoble ele- 
ments. 


9. Later Leaders of Taoism. 


No outstanding leader appeared for a century and a 
quarter after the death ot the founder. 

Lieh-tze, in the fifth century B. C., taught some re- 
markably high religious ideals, as translated by Lionel 
Giles in “Taoist Teachings ”’: 


| 


TAOISM 141 


““My secret is one whereby every man, woman and child in the 
empire shall be inspired with the friendly desire to love and do 
good to one another. If you are sincere in your purpose, all 
the people within the four borders of your realm will be made 
happy.” (56-57.) 

“The man who achieves harmony with Tao enters into close unison 
with external objects, and none of them has the power to harm 
or hinder him. Passing through solid metal or stone, walking 
in the midst of fire or on the surface of water—all these things 
become possible to him.”’ (51.) 


The latter quotation illustrates also the combination 


of lower ideals, as taught by Lieh-tze. All distinctions 


are repudiated, even ethical distinctions (Giles, ‘*‘ Tao- 
ist Teachings,” 41-42). Miracle and magic are mingled 
in the knowledge of Tao (44-45). “Following Nature” 
ends in animalism (54-55). Absent-mindedness is a 
blessing (71). Complete indifference to life and society 
is the mark of the true sage who has received divine 
enlightenment (78-79). 

Kwang-tze, in the fourth century B. C., was the 
Taoist author whose writings are the most widely en- 
joyed. Somewhat like John Bunyan through “Pil- 
grim’s Progress,” he conveyed religious ideals by means 
of graphic narratives, imaginative conversations, mean- 
ingful proper names, incisive proverbs, and quaint 
paradoxes. By 600 A. D. “the editions of his work 
amounted to nearly a score” (SBE, 39:9). In 742 
A. D., he was canonized as a sage, by imperial order. 
Kwang-tze reiterated the fundamental Taoist prin- 
ciples. 


The cosmic Tao is invisible, inaudible, unnamable, undiscussable, 
inexpressible. (SBE, 40 : 68-69.) 

The perfect man is peaceful like the Tao. (SBE, 39 : 192-193.) 

The ideal condition is.a by-gone utopian simplicity in a state of 
nature. (SBE, 39: 278.) 

“Vacancy, stillness, placidity, tastelessness, quietude, silence, non- 
action—this is the level of Heaven and Earth, and the perfec- 
tion of the Tao.” (SBE, 39 : 331.) 


142 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Perhaps the most remarkable case of doubting one’s personality 
in all serious literature is Kwang-tze’s famous “butterfly 
dream.” “I did not know whether it had been formerly 
Kwang-tze dreaming that he was a butterfly, or it was now a | 
butterfly dreaming that it was Kwang-tze.”’ (SBE, 39: 197.) 


10. The History of Taoism. 


Throughout its possibly 2,500 years of existence Tao- 
ism has stood opposed to Confucianism, which has been 
the chief religious system of China. During the Chris- 
tian era there has been a third rival religion, Buddhism, 
from India. A few emperors of China have actually 
favored Taoism. But for the most part Taoism has 
been in disrepute on account of its degradation. 
Taoism has had no foreign-missionary activity, and 
few reformers. The outstanding dates in its history 
have been the periods of favor and disfavor with the 
emperors of China. 


B. C. 

212 Emperor Shi Huang Ti burned Confucian books, and 
established Taoism; sent naval expeditions to Fairy 
Islands to discover the herb of immortality. 

ASD! 

1 The leading Taoist in China endeavored to compound 
a pill of immortality. 

156 Emperor Hwan of China first sacrificed to Lao-tze. 

574-581 Emperor Wu arranged order of precedence, viz., Con- 
fucianism, first; Taoism, second; and Buddhism 
third; but soon became disgusted with Taoism and 
Buddhism, and ordered their abolition. The next 
emperor, Tsing, re-established both non-Confucian 
religions. 

650-684 Lao-tze canonized as an emperor; his writings in- 


cluded among subjects for government examinations. 

713-742 Emperor Kai Yuen distributed copies of the Tao-Teh- 
King throughout the empire; took a dose of Taoist 
*“gold-stone”’ medicine; magicry increased. 

825-827 Emperor Pao-Li banished all Taoist doctors on ac- 
count of their intrigues and pretensions away to 
the two southernmost provinces of China. 

841-847 Emperor Wu Tsung ordered all Taoist and Buddhist 
monasteries and nunneries closed. Later he re- 


TAOISM 143 


stored Taoism to imperial favor, and stigmatized 
Buddhism as “a foreign religion.” Took Taoist 
medicine to etherealize his bones, so as to fly 
) through the air like the fairies. 
_ 1661-1721 Emperor Kang Hsi ordered punishment not only of 
| the Taoist quacks, but also of the patients; forbade 
Taoist assemblies and processions; endeavored to 
| suppress the various Taoist sects. 

1900 The Boxer Uprising originated in a sect of specially 
ardent Taoists who believed their bodies would be 
immune against foreigners’ bullets, trusting the 
exact words of the founder: ““When coming among 
soldiers, he need not fear arms and weapons.” 
(TTK, 50:4; Carus’s translation.) 


rz. Modern Taoism. 


The actual outworkings of the system have been 
quite different from the high theories of its founder. 
Yet the Tao-Teh-King itself presents some basis for 
all of the later developments of Taoism except the 
hierarchical papacy. Taoists have lost almost totally 
their founder’s original protest against social disorders 
and his measure of ethical idealism. ‘Taoism has always 
been mystical, but through most of its history it has 
interpreted the mysterious mostly in magical and anti- 
scientific terms. ‘Taoism presents a pathetic history. 
It started with some admirable features, but it has de- 
graded fearfully into polytheism, demonolatry, witch- 
craft, and occultism. 


The functions of the modern Pope are chiefly to bless and sell 
charms and amulets to be used against disease and similar mach- 
aie of evil spirits. (Giles, ‘‘Confucianism and Its Rivals,” 
178. 


The social morality of the Taoist priests is in general 
ill repute. The easiest approximation to the unper- 
turbed condition of the immortal Tao is now con- 
ceived to be accomplished through the method of re- 
tiring into a monastery or a nunnery, and there living 


144 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


inactively so as to produce prodigious longevity. 
Every one of the authorities who deals with Taoism 
from personal knowledge of it utters condemnation. 


This doctrine has degenerated into vagaries, such as pulmonary 
gymnastics and searches after elixirs of life. (DeGroot, “The 
Religion of the Chinese,” 153.) | 

Sunk lower in the estimation of their fellow men than any but the - 
most degraded of idolaters. (Douglas, “Confucianism and 
Taouism,” 287.) 

For centuries, Taoism, a by-word of reproach. ... This cult is 
little more than an inextricable mass of jugglery and fraud, .. . 
conducted by a body of priests recruited from the very dregs 
of the empire. (L. Giles, “The Sayings of Lao-tze,”’ 17-18.) 

There is little hope for China politically, morally, or religiously 
until Taoism is swept away from the face of the land. It is 
evil, and only evil. (H. C. DuBose in “Religions of Mission 
Fields,” 181.) 


12. Elements of Strength in Taoism. 


Its intimate connection of each human individual 
with the Supreme Being. 

Its teaching that the perfect man must follow the 
divine “‘ Way.” 

Its founder’s teaching to return good for evil. 

Its ideal of “‘a good man” continuing even into the 
later degraded periods. 


13. Elements of Weakness in Taoism. 


Its impersonal, irresponsible Supreme Being. 

Its founder’s positively ignoble example of with- 
drawing from difficulty; not organizing for reform. 

Its inadequate recognition of the evils in the world. 

Its inadequate appreciation of physical facts and re- 
sources. 

Its doctrine of inactivity (wu-wet), belittling all 
human effort. 

Its lack of a commanding enthusiastic principle for 
living; mostly negative advice. 


TAOISM 145 


Its ethical ideal of indifference and irresponsibility. 

Its inadequate conception of immortal life; merely a 
srotracted existence. 

Its lack of a programme for the uplift of society; only 
1 return to an uncivilized simplicity. 

Its actual polytheism, demonolatry, and its practice 
of magic. 


Vill 
SHINTO 


Tue RELIGION OF Nature-Worsuip, EMPEROR- © 
Worsuip, AND Purity 





Pest os 
1. Among the Religions of the World. ) 
Shinto, the immemorial national religion of Japaia, 
would rank as the third oldest among the religions of 
the world, if its own traditional chronology is followed 
back to 660 B.C. Such antiquity is considerably modi- 
fied by modern critical study. However, Shinto un- 
questionably represents the distinctive religious genius 
of Japan from the very beginnings of its history. 
Shinto is yniqueamong the religions of the world 
for the contribution which it has made to the political 
theory and the national stability of its own adherents. 
ecealing ate eacted ocr OU Ae ee of Japan 
were the first divine creation, and the first Mikade was 


a literal descendant to ear un-goddess 1 in 


heaven. 
 caaantet ae 





Do thou, my august grandchild, proceed thither, and govern it. 
Go! And may prosperity attend thy dynasty. And may it, 
like Heaven and Earth, endure for ever. (Nihon-gi, 1: 77.)! 


The belief in the divine origin of the land and govern- 
ment of Japan and in the perpetual duration of the 
monarchy has been steadfastly fostered in the mind of 


2 The references in this chapter to the Nihon-gi are to the volume and page of the 
two-volume translation by W. A. Aston, in Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan 
Society, London. (Triibner, 1896.) 

The references to the Ko-ji-ki are to the pages of the translation by Professor 
Basil Hall Chamberlain, in Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Supplement 
to volume X. (Tokyo, 1882.) The pages of the original edition may be found in 
the margin of both reprints, viz., the editions of 1906 and of 1920. 


146 


SHINTO 147 


: 
Japan by its_national religion. The Constitution, 
‘which was formulated in 1889 in order to bring Japan 
into line with the methods of other nations of the » 
world, starts with a reaffirmation of religious faith; the 
preamble declares that the Mikado sits upon “the 
wurone of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal.” 
Historically Shinto has furnished the vital religious 
hasis for the oldest reigning dynasty in the world. 
Shinto is almost unique for its active tolerance toward 
other religions. According to its own records, there 
thave been almost 1,400 years during which Shinto has 
coexisted and intermingled with two other religions, 
Confucianism and Buddhism. Taoism also has been 
in Japan since 600 A. D. ‘The regular Japanese name 
for this religion is Kami-no Michi, meaning “'The Way 
of the Gods,”’ buf the most common designation is a 
translation of that phrase into Chinese—“Shinto”’ (or 
'Shin-tao). ‘The last element in this name is the dis- 
tinctive element in the name of the Chinese religion, 
“Tao-ism.” According to its own record (Nihon-gi, 
@:195), an emperor of Japan “despised the Way of 
the Gods,” and formally adopted the Buddhist re- 
ligion. Shinto has never proselytized nor persecuted, 
except to require political loyalty. Indeed, Shinto, not 
being personally founded, does not possess the sharply 
defined characteristics which are usual in personal re- 
ligious belief and in personal religious experience. In 
‘recent years there have been authorities, Japanese, 
European, and American, who have denied that Shinto 
may properly be classified as a religion, and who in- 
stead have interpreted it simply as a patriotic cult. 


2. The Sacred Scriptures of Shinto. 


The most valuable and influential documents in the 


indigenous literature of Japan have been two, which 
eee 


148 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


set forth a story of the deeds and conversations in 
“The Age of the Gods” before there were any men, 
and then the creation of Japan and the reigns of the 
sovereigns of Japan for somewhat more than a thou- 
sand years. These two are the Ko-ji-ki,_meaning 
“Records of Ancient Matters,” and the Nihon-gi, 
meaning “Chronicles of Japan.” From the preface of 
the former and from a commentary on the latter, 
written within a hundred years, the dates of their com- 
position may be fixed precisely at 712.A. D.-and 720 
A. D., respectively. These dates bring the sacred 
scriptures of Shinto very late in the history of religions, 
—more than a century after the birth of Muhammad, 
who founded the latest of the world’s great religions, 
and more than 1,300 years after the earliest event in 
human history which is recorded in the documents 
.themselves, the accession of the first. Mikado, Jimmu 
Tenno, 660 B. C. Yet even so, the Ko-ji-ki and the 
Nihon-gi are the earliest extant specimens in 1,200 
years of book-making in Japan. 

The author of the Ko-ji-ki presents himself in the 
preface as a court noble of the fifth rank, who was 
commanded by the emperor to gather up and arrange 
“the genealogies of the emperors and likewise the words 
of former ages,”’ particularly as these were repeated to 
the compiler of the document by a very remarkable 

““reciter,’” who could repeat the contents of anything 
he had ever read and who could remember all that he 
had ever heard. 

Ere many years have elapsed the purport of this the great basis 

of the country, the foundation of the monarchy, will be destroyed. 
So now I desire to have the chronicles of the emperors selected 


and recorded, and the old words examined and ascertained. 
(Ko-ji-ki, 1, 9, 11, 13.) 


The same author is reported by the commentary on 


SHINTO 149 


the Nihon-gi, to have collaborated with a prince under 

{the same royal authority to produce only eight years 
later the second document, which is a more extensive 
collection of varied source material, but arranged with 
the same royalist purpose. 

The absolute reliability of these historical records 
was first rejected, on critical grounds, in 1893, by a 
Japanese scholar, Professor Kume, of the Imperial 
University at T okyo, who was deprived of his profes- 
sorship for thus impugning the orthodox Shinto be- 
lief. 

The obscenity in the Ko-ji-ki exceeds anything to 
be found in the sacred scriptures of any other religion 
in the world. The English translator alludes to this 
fact five times in his introduction. On at least six- 
teen pages there are “indecent portions of the text 
which, from obvious reasons, refuse to lend themselves 
to translation into English” (Ko-ji-ki, p. iv), and which, 
therefore, he translates into Latin. 

A third important document of the Shinto religion 
is the Yengi-shtk+ (Institutes of the Period of Yengi), 
(901-923 A. D.). The first ten of its fifty books are 
the very earliest source for a knowledge of the cultus. 
The actual text records twenty-five Nori-to, prayers 
for various ceremonial occasions. For example, the 
prescribed prayer at the annual harvest festival con- 
tains the following: 


If the sovereign gods of the harvest will bestow the late-ripening 

| harvest in many bundled ears, then I will fulfil their praises by 

setting up the first fruits in a thousand ears and raising high 

the beer-jars; and, having furnished a white horse, a “white 

boar, and a white cock, will pile up the first fruits like a range 

of hills, and will tranquilly take the remainder. (Satow, 
Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 7: 105, 109, 111.) 


A fourth important scripture in Shinto is the Manyo- 


\ 
150 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


: 93 | 
shiu, meaning “Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves.” | 


This is an anthology of 400 poems, made in the ninth» 
century A. D. The following is a specimen: | 


‘*When began the earth and heaven, 
Met the gods in high assembly. 
Myriads upon myriads gathered. 
On the Goddess of the Sunlight 
They bestowed the realm of Heaven. 
To her grandchild they delivered 
This the land of fairest rice-ears, 
His with god-like sway to govern, 
Long as heaven and earth endured.” 
(Aston, “History of Japanese Literature,”’ 36.) 


The sacred scriptures contain a varied collection of 
legends, chronicles, ballads, and poems centring on 
thé-divine origin and the early history of the island 
empire of Japan. They report a generally joyous de- 
light in the powers of nature, along with a recognition 
of some of its grewsome aspects. But the fact is no- 
ticeable that the sacred scriptures of Shinto do not 
contain any of the more tragic and glorious themes of 
religious literature, such as a conflict of duties, the in- 
tricate problems of the moral ideal, the critical strug- 
gles of human beings with good and evil, a pre-eminent 
historic personage, saving assistance coming to an in- 
dividual in an effort for virtue, the progressive accom- 
plishment of a plan for the whole world, or the mo- 
mentous mysteries of a future life. 


3. The Conception of Deity. 


The regular word for god or deity in the Japanese 
language is kami. Its primary meaning is ‘‘upper.” 
The latest ‘elaborate treatise on Shinto published in 
Japan reviews sixteen different theories concerning the 
origin and signification of the word, and classifies them 


under three main ideas: (1) pure or bright, (2) superior, 


SHINTO 151 


and (3) strange, mysterious, fearful, hidden, super- 
natural. © zs 


There is no other word in the original Japanese language with 
such a rich and multiform content, with respect to which trans- 
lators, both Japanese and foreign, have encountered greater 
difficulties. (Holton, TASJ, 49: 2. 129.) 


Motoori (1730-1801 A. D.), who was the most im- 
portant theologian in the whole history of Shinto, has 
expounded the meaning of this crucial Shinto concept 

in a passage which has become of historic influence. 


Not only human beings, but birds, beasts, plants and trees, seas 
and mountains, and all other things whatsoever which deserve 
to be dreaded and revered for the extraordinary and pre-eminent 
powers which they possess, are called Kami. They need not 
be eminent for surpassing nobleness, goodness, or serviceable- 
ness. Malignant and uncanny beings are also called Kami, 
if only they are the objects of general dread. The successive 

. Mikados, numerous examples of divine human beings in ancient 
and modern times, the fox, the tiger, the wolf, the peach, the 
jewels are called Kami. (Aston, “‘Revival of Pure Shintau,”’ 
42-43; reprinted in 1883 and 1905 from TASJ, vol. II, 1875.) 


The number of Shinto deities is usually referred to 
as 80 myriads in the Nihon-gi, and as 800 myriads in 
the Ko-ji-ki. They are also referred to summarily, 
without any indication of their numbers, thus: 


“the gods,” “the gods of high heaven,” “the gods of heaven,” 
*‘the gods of heaven and earth,” “the gods of the earth and of 
grain,’ “‘all the gods of heaven and earth,” “all the gods,”’ “‘all 
the deities of the august declivities of: the hills, and all the 
deities of the reaches of the rivers, without neglecting any.” 
(Ko-ji-ki, 175.) 


The origin of the deities is declared by both of the 
chief scriptures of Shinto as having occurred after the 
formation of heaven and earth, which in turn took 
place after “chaos had begun to condense” (Ko-ji-ki, 
4; Nihon-gi, 1 : 1-2). 


152 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


The two chief primeval deities are the famous Izanagi 
(Male-who-invites) and Izanagai (Female-who-invites). 
These together became the progenitors of all subse- 
quent. 

The doings of the deities, both male and female, are 
reported in the Shinto scriptures with much directness. 
They are born, wed, beget children, vomit, bathe, be- 
come sick, vexed, jealous, weep, curse, kill, destroy, 
die, are buried in a certain place, and subsequently 
may be raised in rank by the emperor of Japan. 

The moral character of the Shinto deities is as varied 
as that of human beings. For example, a whole group 
of them are “lying deities” (Ko-ji-ki, 229). One of 
the most important is characterized thus: 


This god, Susa-no-wo, was of a wicked nature. (Nihon-gi, 1 : 20.) 
His “‘behaviour was exceeding rude.” (Nihon-gi, 1:40.) Spe- 
cifically, this deity, when “impetuous with victory, broke down 
the divisions of the rice-fields, filled up ditches, and flayed an 
animal alive.” (Ko-ji-ki, 52-53; Nihon-gi, 1:41, 45, 47.) 
Then “‘all the gods imposed on Susa-no-wo a fine.” (Nihon-gi, 
1:45, 49.) The assembled gods said: ‘‘Thy behaviour has been 
filthy and wicked.” In the end they repulsed him. (Nihon-gi, 
1:50.) And he was driven. into banishment. (Nihon-gi, 1 : 57.) 
Indeed, “‘the 800 myriad deities took counsel together, and cut 
his beard, and even caused the nails of his fingers and toes to 
be pulled out.” (Ko-ji-ki, 59; Nihon-gi, 1: 45.) 


This is, perhaps, the extreme instance of how the 
standards of morality in Japan have been advancing 
beyond the standards which the sacred scriptures of 
the Shinto religion allow to the deities. No human 
being in Japan now would be allowed to do with im- 
punity what the God Susa-no-wo is reported to have 
done, nor what the other deities did to him in punish- 
ment of his offense. The phallic worship which was 
quite prevalent prior to 1868 has been notably sup- 
pressed since the beginning of the_era of..Meiji (En- 
lightenment). TD ad ee 


| 


SHINTO 4 ABS 


ta. The Nature Deities. 


The Shinto religion originally was chiefly a Ppauices 
worship. Almost all of the deities referred to in the 
primary documents are objects-or-ferees-in-nature. 

The Sun-goddess, Ama -terasu (the Heaven-Shining- 
One), is the most important. object. of worship among 
the nature deities. Unto her was given the prime ap- 
pointment among the numerous progeny of the pri- 
meval progenitor, Izanag1. 


Do Thine Augustness rule the plain of high heaven. (Ko-ji-ki, 
43; Nihon-gi, 1 : 32.) 


From her, and not from any male deity, is traced the 
ancestry. -of-the..divine. Mikado. of J apan. Shinto is 
tinique. among the religions of the world in represent- 
ing the paramount regent of the world as feminine in 
gender. 

The Moon-god, Tsuki-yomi, was appointed second 
by the primeval male to. be a ruler auxiliary to the 
female solar deity. 


Do Thine Augustness rule the dominion of the night. (Ko-ji-ki, 
43-44; Nihon-gi, 1 : 32.) 

His radiance was next to that of the Sun in splendour. This god 
was to be the consort of the Sun-goddess and to share in her gov- 
ernment. (Nihon-gi, 1:19.) 


Many other nature deities are mentioned in the two 
main scriptures of Shinto, such as Kagase-wo (the star 
god), Susa-no-wo (the storm god), and Ta-kiri-bima 
(the mist goddess). 

Mourt-Fuji-yama isthe one most venerated among 
several sacred Mountains in Japan. ‘Thus from the 
Manyo-shiu: 

“Of Yamato, the Land of Sunrise, 


It is the peace-giver, it is the God.” 
(Aston, ‘‘Shinto, the Way of the Gods,”’ 17.) 


154 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


“No words may tell of it. 
No name that I know is fit for it. 
But a wondrous deity it surely is.” 
(Aston, “Japanese Literature,” 41.) 


5. Mikado-Worship. 

The divine origin of the first Mikado in direct lineal 
descent from the Sun-goddess is taught in both of the 
primary documents. Ama-terasu sends one of her off- 
spring down to earth for the express purpose of reign- 
ing over the land. 


Descend to, dwell in, and rule over, this Luxuriant Reed-Plain- 
Land-of-Fresh-Rice-Ears. (Ko-ji-ki, 106-107.) 


Indeed, the exact spot is designated by the sacred 
writ. 


His Augustness, Ho-no-ni-ni-gi, first descended to the peak of 
Takachiin Tsukushi. (Ko-ji-ki, 5, 111-112; Nihon-gi, 1 : 78-79.) 


The claim of divine origin and divine authority is 
reiterated by the Mikado himself in several pronounce- 
ments and edicts. 


Hear, all of you! The dear progenitor and progenitrix, who 
divinely remain in the plain of high heaven, respectfully gave 
the mandate with the words: “Our sovereign’s grandchild’s 
augustness shall tranquilly rule the Luxuriant Reed-plain Re- 
gion of Fresh-young Spikes as a peaceful country.” (Text of 
the semi-annual great purification ceremony; TASJ, vol. XX VII, 
part I, p. 59.) 

The empire was entrusted by the Sun-goddess to her descendants 
with the words: “My children, in their capacity of deities, shall 
rule it.”” For this reason, this country since heaven and earth 
began has been a monarchy. ... The duty has therefore 
devolved on Us, in Our capacity as Celestial Divinity, to regulate 
and settle it. (Nihon-gi, 2 : 226-227.) 

This is the mandate of the emperor of Japan, who rules the world 
as a God incarnate. (Nihon-gi, 2: 198, 210.) 


The claim of the Mikado’s authority and incarna- 


SHINTO 155 


tion is also reported as acknowledged by glad subjec- 
tion. 
I therefore, filled with joy and veneration, prostrating myself, 


address Your Majesty, the Emperor, who now rules the Land 
of the Eight Islands as an incarnate deity. (Nihon-gi, 2 : 217.) 


This religious teaching in the ancient scriptures of 
Shinto concerning the absolute paramountcy and the 
perpetual sovereignty of the hereditary Mikado has 
been embodied formally into the political constitution 
and pronouncements of modern Japan. The official 
English translation of the constitution of 1889 contains 
the following: 


Article I: The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed - 


by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal. 
Article III: The Emperor is sacred and inviolable. 


The famous Imperial Rescript on Education, Octo- 
ber 30, 1890, which effectively promoted the era_of 
Meiji, started with a demand for unquestioning devo- 
tion to the hereditary monarchy of Japan: 

Know ye, our subjects: Guard and maintain the prosperity of 


our Imperial throne, coeval with heaven and earth, infallible 
for all ages. 


However, the sacred records contain ample evidence 
that the actual sovereignty of the Mikado over a uni- 
fied realm was built up only gradually and by a process 
of fighting over unsubmissive people. Indeed, con- 
demnation of more than one Mikado stands in the 
text of the sacred “‘Chronicles of Japan.” 


The Sun-goddess in her original instructions pointed out the need 
of physical force over the inhabitants of Japan. 

If the Heavenly Grandchild will use this spear, he will undoubtedly 
subdue it to tranquillity. (Nihon-gi, 1 : 69.) 

And the first Emperor, Jimmu, is reported as having been success- 
ful in his struggles with various tribes because of divine assis- 


156 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


tance, ) my sword, with which I subdued the land.” (Nihon-gi, 
$3 115; 

The Emperor Mimaki was wanting in thoroughness. Therefore 
that Emperor was short-lived. For this reason do thou, our 
august descendant, now show regret for the shortcomings of the 
late Emperor, and be watchful in regard to the ceremonies of 
worship. If thou dost so, thine augustness will be long, and more- 
over the empire will have peace. (Nihon-gi, 1 : 177.) 

The Empress Jingo was grieved that the Emperor [her predecessor] 
would not follow the divine instructions, and had consequently 
died a premature death. (Nihon-gi, 1 : 224.) 


For centuries in Japan there has been a strict en- 
forcement of the command that no person might be 
allowed even physically to look down upon Imperial 
Majesty. Yet in 1922 the general democratizing proc- 
ess had developed to such an extent that the Crown 
Prince for the first time in the entire history of Japan 
travelled abroad, and on returning from Europe 
passed among the common people in various cities of 
Japan. 


6. Worship, Centralized and Patriotic. 


If the test be applied of worship of superhuman 
deity, Shinto is amply evidenced as a religion. Nu- 
merous shrines and priests cover the country, yet the 
number of deities is almost too large and indefinite to 
permit systematic worship of them all. In fact, the 
scriptures report the actual worship of only a few. 

The Sun-goddess, being the most obvious and emi- 
ment, is the chief object of worship in this polytheistic 
nature religion. She is easily worshipped, individually 
‘and locally. Yet there is also an official and formal 

‘worship of this great Shinto deity, centralized in Isé 
for the whole Japanese nation, somewhat as in Judaism 
the worship of Jehovah used to be centralized in Jeru- 
salem. The most sacred spot in all Japan, the one 
which is perhaps most frequently visited on religious 


| 
| 


SHINTO 157 


pilgrimages, is on the seacoast southeast of the ancient 
capital, Kyoto. Here the Naiku, or “inner temple,”’ is 
believed by the Japanese to date from the year 4 B. C., 
and is sacred to the Sun-goddess Ama-terasu, ancestress 
of the Mikados. In this sanctuary is a round mirror, 
the precious symbol of the great orb of light in heaven. 
Worship in this particular place, even the method of 
worship, is mentioned in both of the primary docu- 
ments of Shinto, and is carried back to a time dating 
from before the beginning of the Christian religion. 
The mirror is declared to have been given by the Sun- 
goddess to the first Mikado as a sacred token. 


Ama-terasu took in her hand the precious mirror, saying: “‘My 
child, when thou lookest upon this mirror, let it be as if thou 
wert looking on me. Let it be to thee a holy mirror.’ (Nihon-gi, 
1:83.) 

Reverence this mirror exactly as it were our august spirit, and 

. reverence it as if reverencing us. (Ko-ji-ki, 109.) 


According to the sacred “Chronicles of Japan,” the 
custom has been maintained throughout a period 
longer than the entire history of Christianity, that a 
princess of the royal house has been high priestess of 
the Sun-goddess at the temple at Isé (Ko-ji-ki, 174, 
186). 

Probably all devout Shintoists consider it a privilege 
and a duty, at least once in a lifetime, to make a re- 
ligious pilgrimage to Isé, where there stands also the 
famous Geku, or “outer temple,” which is sacred to 
the food-goddess, Uke-mochi. 

Worship of the emperor has already been mentioned ,, 
as an essential feature of the Shinto religion. Every 
year on the Mikado’s birthday in every educational in- 
stitution, by official command, there is conducted a 
certain solemn ceremony which is largely patriotic, 
including obeisance to the picture of the emperor. 


158 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


The national flag of Japan, with its radiant red sun, 
is a concrete instance of how the religious faith of 
Shinto has been directed powerfully to promote patri- 
otic zeal. The full significance of this emblem doubt- 
less carries to intelligent citizens of ““The Land of the 
Rising Sun” the glowing suggestion that for their na- 
tional and religious rule they should reverently look 
up on high to the source of all light, and that the sub- 
jects of the divinely descended heavenly Mikado may 
all regard themselves as, through him, a divine progeny 
dwelling in a holy land. 


7. Shrines and Offerings. 


Some of the worship in the Shinto religion can be 
seen in the numerous shrines in every hamlet, along 
the wayside, and in almost every picturesque spot 
throughout Japan. In the tenth century there were 
3,132 officially recognized shrines enumerated in the 
Yengi-shiki. In 1880 the village and ungraded shrines 
numbered 183,047, but in 1920 they had decreased to 
111,181. However, the shrines maintained by the 
government had increased during the same period 
from 55 to 105.1 

The Shinto shrines are always approached through 
the characteristic tori-7 gateway, the ends of the upper 
crosspiece curving heavenward. They are often lo- 
cated picturesquely amid lofty cryptomeria trees, or 

ear hillside waterfalls, or near water-courses spanned 

y high-arched bridges. Thus, even in their setting, 
the Shinto shrines are designed to promote a religious 
appreciation of the beautiful in nature. 

The actual worship which is performed at Shinto 
shrines is almost exclusively individual, not congrega- 


1 These statistics are quoted from Holton, TASJ, 49: 2. 324, where they are cited 
from the yearly reports of the Department of Home Affairs. 


SHINTO 159 


tional. It consists regularly of obeisance, bowing rev- 
erentially as in the presence of a superior. Kneeling © 
isnotsocommon. Clapping the hands together, some- . 
times done silently, is also an act of reverence per- 
formed at Shinto shrines. Material offerings for the 
gods form another part of Shinto worship. 


At the present time the daily offerings made to the pu ees 
and the Food-goddess at Isé consist of four cups of sa-ke [1. e., 
liquor], sixteen saucers of rice and four of salt, besides fish, 
birds, fruits, seaweed and vegetables. The annual offerings at 
the tomb of the first Mikado, Jimmu, are products of mountain, 
river and sea, including fish, cakes, birds and liquor. (Aston, 


“Shinto, the Way of the Gods,” 213.) 


8. Prayer in Shinto. 

A Shintoist’s worship to-day is usually completed 
by his coming to a shrine and offering a prayer. ! 

The earliest document in Shinto, the Records of An- 
cient Matters, contains numerous conversations with 
the deities, but never once any words of prayer ad- 
dressed to them. Indeed, the entire document con- 
tains only two passing references to prayer: 


. having said prayers. (Ko-ji-ki, 104.) 
prayerfully reciting grand liturgies. (Ko-ji-ki, 57.) 


The same almost entire absence of prayer occurs in 
the other sacred scripture also. Only two out of the 
forty-two rulers are reported as having prayed in the 
Nihon-gi (1 : 220, 225). Yet a later Shinto scripture, 
the Yengi-shiki, contains the text of twenty-five long 
official Nori-to litanies. These consist chiefly of an- - 
nouncements to the various deities, ascriptions of 
praise, and lists of material offerings which have been 
made, or which will be made. In the first Nori-to 
litany the phrase “fulfil the praises” of the gods recurs 


160 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


at least nineteen times, and the idea of bargaining in 
prayer is expressed more than once. 


If the sovereign gods will bestow . . . the harvest, I will fulfil 
their praises by offering firstfruits. (Aston, SWG, 281-285; 
TASJ, vol. VII, 1878, pp. 109-112.) 


A No moral or spiritual blessings are sought in this en- 
-\ tire collection of official Shinto prayers. “They con- 
eet petitions for rain in time of drought, good harvests, 
preservation from earthquakes and _ conflagrations, 
children, health and long life to the sovereign, and en- 
during peace and prosperity to his rule, the safety of 
his ambassadors to foreign countries, the suppression 
of rebellion, the repulse of invasion, success to the 
Imperial armies, and general prosperity to the Empire.” 
*“Prayers to the Shinto gods, even at the present day, 
are mostly for material_blessings”’ (Aston, SWG, 234, 
236; ‘Shinto, the Ancient Religion of Japan,”’ 62). 


9. Ceremonials and Festivals. 


All the ritual prayers which are contained in the 
Nori-to are connected with specific religious ceremonies, 
which in turn are connected with popular festivals. 
These are important parts of the Shinto religion, as of 
all nature religions and of any other religions which 
are connected with agricultural operations. For ex- 
ample: 

When the seed rice 1s sown in the second month of the 
year, there is a harvest-praying service (Toshigohi 
no Matsuri). The ritual prayer for this occasion is 
the First Nori-to (Aston, SWG, 280; TASJ, 7: 104- 
126). 

When the rice-plants are springing up, there is a 
prescribed ceremonial service of the food-goddess 
(Hirose-Oho-imi no Matsuri) on the fourth day of 


SHINTO 161 


the fourth moon of each year. Numerous offerings are 
made, and the emperor promises still further that: 
If the sovereign eat will deign to perfect and bless the harvest- 


fields . . . I will draw hither the first-fruits, piling them up. 
like a range of hills (TASJ, 7 : 414-415.) 


The first tasting of the new rice, Nihi-name (Feast of 
First-Fruits), in the eleventh month of the year, is an 
especially elaborate ancient ceremony, referred to many 
times in the Nihon-gi. “It is accompanied by songs 
and dances, feasting, holiday dress, presents. Strict 
Shinto devotees would not eat the new season’s rice 
until it had been performed” (Aston, SWG, 277). 

Great Tasting (Oho-nihe), when the emperor in per- 
son conducts the festival of first-fruits in his corona- 
tion year. 

Hirata’s detailed description of this, the most elaborate and 


‘solemn festival of the Shinto religion, occupies 480 pages of his 
Commentary on the Ko-ji-ki. (Aston, SWG, 277.) 


Other harvest festivals are the Joint-Tasting (Ahi-name, 
or Ahimbe; Nihon-gi, 2 : 335), and the Divine Tasting. 

New-moon religious ceremonies, with prayers and 
offerings. 

Monthly festivals (Tsuki-nami no Matsuri) with their 
three prescribed Nori-to prayers (Aston, SWG, 285- 
286). 


to. Purity in Shinto. 

One of the marked practical characteristics of the 
Japanese is their personal cleanliness. Their Shinto 
religion has impress ém the obligati 
themselves assiduously with water. Both of the sacred 
scriptures of Shinto record that even the deity, Izanagi, 
who was the prime progenitor, was careful to wash 
himself for the purpose of personal cleanliness. 


162 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


I will perform the purification of my august person. (Ko-ji-ki, 39.) 
It is meet that I should cleanse my body from its pollutions. 
(Nihon-gi, 1 : 26.) 
. . . to wash away the defilement. (Nihon-gi, 1:31.) 


The most important among the recurring Shinto 


ceremonies was “The Great Purification”? (Oho-harahi). 


It “‘includes a preliminary lustration, expiatory offerings, and the 
recitation of a Nori-to formula, in which the Mikado, by virtue 
of the authority transmitted to him from the Sun-goddess, de- 
clares to his ministers and people the absolution of their sins 
and impurities.” (Aston, SWG, 294; SARJ, 64.) 

“The offerings made were thrown into a river or into the sea, and 
were supposed, like the scapegoat of Israel, to carry with them 
the sins of the people. The offenses more specifically referred 
to are various mischievous interferences with agricultural opera- 


tions.” (Aston, SARJ, 72.) 


Shinto thus teaches emphatically the obligation of 
purity, and also the sense of communal guilt, which 
needs continual purification. But the special kind of 
\purity which the Shinto religion enjoins is mostly physi- 
cal and ceremonial, rather than a purity of heart and 
thought and social relations. 


1. The Ethics of Shinto. 

The Shinto religion is remarkable in having neither a 
definite set of theological beliefs nor a definite code. of” 
morality apart from subservience to the Mikado as a 
divinely descended “Heavenly Sovereign.” In the 
second of Shinto’s sacred scriptures there are a few 


passages which contain sage advice for government 
officials. 


He who tells the truth, will be uninjured. He who is false, will 
assuredly suffer harm. (Nihon-gi, 1 : 317.) 

Cease from gluttony, and abandon covetous desires. Chastise 
that which is evil, and encourage that which is good. Cease 
from wrath, and refrain from angry looks. Be not envious. 
(Nihon-gi, 2 : 130-131.) 


SHINTO 163 


Among the specific commands for the common peo- 
ple there is the following: 


On entering or leaving the Palace Gate, one must kneel on both 
knees, with both hands pressed on the ground. But it is per- 
mitted to stand up and walk when the threshold is passed. 
(Nihon-gi, 2 : 133.) 


In both of the primary sacred scriptures of Shinto 
there is an almost total absence of direct moral teach- 
ings for the people at large. Motoori, the great ex- 
pounder of Shinto in the eighteenth century, explains 
the lack of moral regulations in accordance with 
characteristic Shinto orthodoxy: 


To the end of time each Mikado is a goddess’ son. His mind is in 
perfect harmony of thought and feeling with hers. He does 
not seek out new inventions, but rules in accordance with _prece- 
dents which date from the age of the gods. And if he is ever 

_ in doubt, he has resort to divination, which reveals to him the 
mind of the great goddess. Not only the Mikado, but his min- 
isters and people also, act up to the traditions of the divine age. 
Hence in ancient times the idea of Michi, or way, ethics, was 
never broached. In ancient times, although there was no 
prosy system of doctrine in Japan, there were no popular dis- 


turbances, and the empire was peacefully ruled. It is because al 


the Japanese were truly moral in their practise that they re- 
quired no theory of morals. And the fuss made by the Chinese 
about theoretical morals is owing to their laxity in practice. 
(TASJ, 3 : 24-26.) 


However, the earliest “great purification of the land”’ 
mentioned in the “‘Records of Ancient Matters” was 
on account of the following offenses: 


eReviap alive and flaying backwards, breaking down the divisions 
of rice-fields, fillmg up ditches, marriages between superiors and 
inferiors, marriages with horses, marriages with cattle, marriages 
with fowls, and marriages with dogs. (Ko-ji-ki, 230.) 


In the liturgy of the semiannual “Great Purifica- 
tion,’ as prescribed in Nori-to number 10, the offenses 


164 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


| 
for which the Mikado makes purification regularly are 
as follows: 


Now, of the various faults and transgressions to be committed © 
by the celestial race destined more and more to people this land 
of His peaceful rule, some are of Heaven, to wit: the breaking 
down of divisions between rice-fields, filling up of irrigation- 
channels, removing water-pipes, sowing seed over again:’»la1 
ing skewers [perhaps with an act of incantation], flaying alive, 
TNs backwards. These are distinguished as heavenly of- 
enses. 

Earthly offenses which will be committed are the cutting of living 
bodies, the cutting of dead bodies, leprosy, incest of a man with 
his mother or daughter, with his mother-in-law or step-daughter, 
bestiality, calamities from creeping things [7. e., from snakes and 
centipedes], from the high Gods [7. e., lightning and goblins], and 
from high birds, killing animals, bewitchments. (Aston, SWG, 
297-300; TASJ, 27 : 60-61.) 


The morality as well as the theology of the Shinto 
religion is naturalistic. ‘There has been, however, a 
valuable moral development in Japan subsequent to 

{ the composition of the sacred scriptures. 

| Bushido (fighting-knights’ -way, or the teachings of 
knightly behavior) is a code_of ethics which developed 
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries A. D. as a part 
of feudalism in Japan. It is a feudalistic amalgam of 
certain practical features of the three religions which 
have been prevalent in Japan—Shinto’s loyalty to the 
emperor as divine, Confucianism’s filial obedience, and 
Buddhism’s serene disdainfulness of life and of death. 

, The expositors of Bushido wax eloquent over the 
‘moral virtues which that system has fostered, such as 

\loyalty, courage, self-sacrifice, proper decorum, benev- 

[otence honor, justice, self-control. But they point to © 
no specific injunctions for those moral virtues, except | 
the Chinese moralists, Confucius and Mencius. 


It is not a written code. At best it consists of a few maxims 
handed down from mouth to mouth, or coming from the pen 
of some well-known warrior or savant. (Nitobe, ‘ Bushido,” 51.) 


SHINTO 165 


The strength and perhaps also the weakness of Bushido lay in this, 
—that it possessed no written creed. (Nitobe, “The Japanese 
Nation,”’ 155-156.) 


The moral code of Bushido seems to have grown up, 
and also ceased, largely with militaristic feudalism in 


‘par. 


12. The History of Shinto. 


Five successive periods have seen very varied ten- 
dencies. 


(1) The Early Period of Absolute Supremacy (660 
B. C.-552 A. D.). 

For nominally 1,200 years, from the traditional date 
of the first Mikado, Jimmu, until the introduction of 
Buddhism, Shinto held undisputed sway over Japan. 


(2) The Period of Buddhism’s Early Gains (552-800). 


For 250 years Shinto was still the strongest religion 
in Japan, although three foreign religions, Confucian- 
ism, Taoism, and Buddhism, were coming in from 
China. Two-fifths of the Nihon-gi is devoted to the 
period of Buddhism’s first 150 years in Japan, and con- 
tains more than fifty references to the advancing influ- 
ence of Buddhism. 


In the year 645 the Emperor Kotoku “honored the religion of). 


Buddha, and despised the Way of the Gods.” (Nihon-gi, 2: 
195.) 
In the year 671 the Heir Apparent “renounced the world, and put 
on the priestly garb.’ (Nihon-gi, 2 : 302.) 
(3) The Period of Syncretism, or Mixed Shinto (800- 
1700). 
For 900 years the indigenous religion of Japan was 
being consciously intermingled with foreign religions. 


The Buddhist priest Kobo-Daishi (774-835 A. D.) successfully 
preached a doctrine, called Ryubo or Mixed Shinto, that the 


166 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Shinto deities were only transmigrations or incarnations of 
Buddhist deities. 

Kitabatake Chikafusa (1293-1354 A. D.) and Ichigo Kaneyoshi 
(1465-1500 A .D.) “‘contended that Shinto, Buddhism and Con- 
fucianism were all capable of being welded into a whole.” 
(Brinkley, “‘History of the Japanese People,” 452.) 


The extent to which the actual paramountcy of 
Shinto even in the court of Japan was weakened in | 


this period of rivalry with foreign religions may be 
seen from the fact that the greatest Shinto rite of all, 
the Oho-nihe, or Coronation Ceremony, was in abey- 
ance for eight reigns, from 1465 to 1687 A. D. (Aston, 
SWG, 364, also 277). 


(4) Indigenous Revival of Shinto (1700-1868). 


For a century and two-thirds, during a period when 
its official head was so weak that the military regent 
had usurped the power of the Mikado, four famous 
literati effected a notable revival of Shinto. Kada 
(1669-1736 A.D.) revived the study of the archaic 
Japanese language and edited the ancient texts. 
Mabuchi (1697-1769 A. D.), his pupil, recalled that 


“In ancient times, when men’s dispositions were straightforward, 
a complicated system of morals was unnecessary. So that in 
those days it was unnecessary to have a doctrine of right and 
wrong. But the Chinese, being bad at heart, in spite of the 
teaching which they got, were only good on the outside. The 
Japanese, being straightforward, could do without teaching.” 
(TASJ, 3: 16.) 


Motoori (1730-1801 A. D.) wrote a commentary on 
the Ko-ji-ki, which extends to forty-four printed vol- 
umes. He revived the waning glories of Shinto with 
the following sentiments: 


“As foreign countries, China and India, particularly the former, 
are not under the special domain of the Sun-goddess, they have 
no permanent rulers; and evil spirits, having found a field of ac- 
tion, have corrupted mankind.” (TASJ, 3: 25.) 


| 


SHINTO 167 


“Tt has been asked whether the Kami-no-Michi is not the same as 
the Taoism of Lao-tze. Lao-tze hated the vain conceits of the 
Chinese scholars, and honored naturalness, from which a re- 
semblance may be argued. But, as he was born in a dirty 
country not under the special protection of the Sun-goddess, 
he had only heard the theories of the succession of so-called 
Holy Men.” (TASJ, 3: 29.) 

“The eternal endurance of the dynasty of the Mikados is a com- 
plete proof that the ‘Way’ called Kami-no-Michi, or Shinto, 
ae surpasses the system of all other countries.” (TASJ, 
So: 275 


Hirata (1776-1843 A.D.) produced more than a 
hundred writings, and was the most learned and pro- 
ductive scholar in the whole history of Shinto. He 
expounded this faith as follows: 


“The two fundamental doctrines are: that Japan is the country 
of the Gods, and her inhabitants are the descendants of the 
Gods. Between the Japanese people and the Chinese, Hindus, 
Russians, Dutch, Siamese, Cambodians and other nations of 

_the world there is a difference of kind, rather than of degree.” 
(TASJ, 3 : 46.) 

“The Mikado is the true Son of Heaven, who is entitled to reign over 
the four seas and the ten-thousand countries.” (TASJ, 3: 52.) 

*‘From the fact of the divine descent of the Japanese people pro- 
ceeds their immeasurable superiority to the natives of other 
countries in courage and intelligence.” (TASJ, 3: 54.) 

They ‘are honest and upright of heart, and are not given to useless 
theorizing and falsehoods like other nations.” (TASJ,3: 58.) 


Such a religious revival of faith in the Mikado and 
in the people of Japan led directly to the Restoration 
of 1868. 


(5) Recent Varied Readjustments of Shinto. (einee | 
1868). 


The first effect of the re-establishment of ae Mikado on 


at the beginning of the era.of.Meiji was for a thor- 
ough rehabilitation of Shinto in its pure form. By 
imperial decrees of 1871 and 1872 all the Shinto shrines 
of the country were directed punctiliously to observe 


168 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


the Great Purification ceremony on the last day of 
June and December as an official ceremony in the 
presence of the local officials. But subsequently there 
has followed a tendency toward disestablishment. 


The Shrine Laws of 1900 and 1913 have put the Shinto shrines 
altogether outside of religion under the Department of Home 
Affairs. (TASJ, 49:2. 95-96.) 


On the other hand, there has been some tendency 
toward reviving and reinterpreting Shinto in world- 
wide relations, especially since the World War. 


Doctor Kakehi, of the Law Department in the Imperial University 
of Tokyo, has started a movement which proposes “‘to expand 
Shinto into a great, all-inclusive world-religion, embracing within 
itself Buddhism, Confucianism, the thirteen Shinto sects, Chris- 
tianity, Taoism, and Muhammadanism. Shinto is the faith at 
the basis of all religions. It is the religion of religions.” (TASJ, 
vol. XLIX, part 2, p. 99.) 

The Japanese are the chosen people of God, and the presence of 
God is especially manifested in the Emperor of Japan. Shinto 
is logically destined to be the universal religion and the saving 
culture of mankind. The duty of the Japanese people and of 
the Emperor of Japan is to spread that religion and culture, 
until the Emperor of Japan shall become the supreme temporal 
and spiritual ruler of the world. This conquest of the world is 
to be made by peaceful means; but it seems reasonable that. if 
peaceful means fail, the power of might may be tried. (Biblical 
World, July, 1919, p. 434.) 


The fundamental faith of Japan to-day is doubtless 
the same as that expressed by the ancient Japanese 
poet, Hitomaro (737 A. D.): 

‘Japan is not a land where men need pray, 
For ’tis itself divine. 


Yet do I lift my voice in prayer.”” (Chamberlain, “The 
Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” 88.) 


13. Elements of Strength in Shinto. 
Reverence for the supernatural present in nature. 


No general idolatry, despite round-mirror symbol of 
Sun-goddess. 


SHINTO 169 


Self-sacrificing reverence for government as a divine 
“institution. 
_ An enthusiastic, unifying patriotism. 
An affinity between man and the divine. 
Religious value in cleanliness and purity. 
Reverence for the beautiful as integral to religion. 
Loyalty to the superior, almost the soul of religion. 


14. Elements of Weakness in Shinto. 
Its heterogeneous polytheism; no cosmic unity. 
Its fantastic scriptural myths about deity. 
Not one deity worthy of veneration as a moral ideal. 
No high moral code for human beings. 
No intrinsic value in a human individual. 
No historic founder to standardize and inspire. 
No outstanding, historic noble human example. 
No magnificent goal for human society. 
No glorious hope of a future life. 
No inner religious life; chiefly ceremonialism. 
Not much help available from deity. 
No historic service actually rendered to outsiders. 
No place for non-Japanese, except recently, 


IX 
JUDAISM 


Tue RELIGION OF OBEDIENCE TO THE RIGHTEOUS 
Gop 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


The word Judaism, which occurs in the New Testa- 
ment (Galatians 1: 13), was first used about 100 B. C. 
’ in Greeco-Jewish literature (II Maccabees 2 : 21; 8: 1) 
to designate the religion of the Hebrews. There is no 
+ other one word to cover the entire history of this 
religion. 

Judaism is the oldest of nine personally founded re- 
ligions. It is the oldest of five living religions which 
originated from the belief that a personal deity had 
made a special divine revelation through an individual 
founder. The other later religions of this type are 
Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism. 

Judaism is the earliest of three religions which teach 
that there exists one supreme Person, Creator of the 
whole world, and God over all men. This great re- 
ligious faith was conveyed through Judaism to two 
other monotheistic religions, Christianity and Islam. 

Judaism is the earlier of two religions whose sacred 
scriptures proclaim an ideal order which is surely to 
be realized upon earth under the rule of God. This 
glowing hope of Judaism is shared in certain respects 
by only one other religion. But Christianity lays upon 
all its adherents a responsibility for active co-operation 
with God to help bring the longed-for kingdom through- 
out the earth. 

170 


JUDAISM 171 


Judaism has the unique distinction of being a re- 
ligion whose followers have been scattered abroad for 
a longer period than previously they had been in their 
original national home, Palestine; yet they have not 
lost their marked religious and racial characteristics, 
despite more destructive persecutions than have been 
suffered by any other religious group in the world. 

During its long career Judaism has undergone vari- 
ous internal developments. Like all religions, it has 
borrowed. Yet it has contributed still more. Indeed, 
Judaism is the parent of the two religions most active 
im missionary work, Christianity and Islam. Ethical 
monotheism has been Judaism’s noblest feature, and 
also its noblest contribution to the religious thought of 
the world. 


2. The Sacred Scriptures of Judaism. 


The sacred scriptures of Judaism are a collection of 
twenty-four documents, arranged in three groups 
known as The Law, The Prophets, and The Writings 
(or Hagiographa). They were all composed in Hebrew, 
except that about half the book of Daniel, some offi- 
cial documents in Ezra, and a single verse in Jeremiah 
are in Aramaic. They must be read in the original 
language in all orthodox synagogues even to the present 
day. These documents have become more widely 
known as the Old Testament of Christianity, where 
they have been rearranged into thirty-nine books. 

These sacred scriptures represent a literary activity 
of perhaps ten centuries. They traverse a succession 
of many stages of religious growth in the knowledge of 
God. The orthodox Jews regard as peculiarly sacred |, 
the first five books, or the Law (Torah), which deals | 
with the origin of the world, their nation, and their 
religion. But as expressing the highest attainment of © 


172 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


religious faith, the last book of the Law (Deuteronomy) 
and the Psalms and the Prophets are more valuable. 
It was from this latter phase of Judaism as the religion 
of personal devotion to God that Christianity sprang. 


3. Beginnings from Primitive Semitic Religion (before 
1200 B. C.). 


Judaism was the first religion to spring from the 
primitive religious life of the Semites. Those uncul- 
tured, yet religiously minded, nomads are still rep- 
resented by the modern Bedouin tribes. Their-original 
belief was that various objects, either natural like a 
mountain or a spring, or artificially consecrated like a 
post or an ark, were intimately connected with their 
special deity. Their social unit was the clan, each 
recognizing some particular deity at its head. All 
members, including the deity, were expected to pro- 
mote the material interests of the clan and to injure’ 
its enemies. Thus the conception of deity was essen- 
tially that of a hereditary tribal leader. This kind of 
a religion prescribed no moral obligations outside of the 
clan. And even within the clan the relations were 
simple and rudimentary, represented by the com- 
munion meal in which the deity partook symbolically 
through offerings or the shedding of blood. 

Out of such a primitive polytheistic background, 
with only a few moral ideals, there was gradually de- 
veloped the distinctive ethical monotheism of Judaism 
through the influence of outstanding personalities such 
as Abraham, Moses, Elijah, and the prophets of Israel. 

The Abraham portrayed in Genesis would not serve 
at the present time as a model of monogamy or truth- 
fulness or general morality. He lied about his wife 
(Genesis 12: 11-19). He was ready to make his son 
a religious sacrifice (Genesis 22:10). He was a man 


JUDAISM 173 


of his age in many respects. Yet he was truly a great 
man, who made a venture of faith and broke away 
from his inherited polytheism. 


The Lord appeared to Abraham, and said unto him: “‘I am God 
Almighty: walk before me, and be thou perfect.” (Genesis 17 : 1.) 


Jews and Christians regard Abraham as “the father 
of the faithful’’ because “‘he believed in the Lord, and 
he counted it to him for righteousness”’ (Genesis 15 : 6). 
Abraham believed that, on account of his religious 
faith in “the Lord God of heaven and the God of the 
earth” (Genesis 24:3), he would become the head of 
a countless progeny upon earth and prove a world- 
wide blessing. Indeed, the sacred scriptures both of 
Judaism and of Christianity characterize Abraham as a 
“friend of God” (IL Chronicles 20:7; Isaiah 41:8; 
James 2:23). However, he did nothing further to 
organize or propagate his faith (Genesis 17: 9-14). 
Therefore, although Abraham is the first outstanding 
figure in the history of Judaism, he can hardly be re- 
garded as its founder. 


4. Moses the Organizer of Use aor (about 
1200 B. C.). 


The religion of the people a have been variously 
known as Israelites, Hebrews, and Jews was first organ- 
ized out of a momentous religious experience. Moses, 
a Hebrew in Egypt who had risen to a remarkably 
high position at the court, killed an Egyptian who had 
abused a Hebrew, and fled to the wilderness. There 
he felt that Jehovah was calling him to help deliver 
his people from their oppression (Exodus, chapters 2 
and 3). Thereupon, Moses appeared as a champion of 
Hebrew liberty in the name of “The Eternally Ex- 
istent.” This special name for deity in Judaism has 


174 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


long been known as “Jehovah,” though the original 
form probably was “Jahveh”’ or “‘ Yahweh” (Exodus 
3:14). Through various vicissitudes Moses succeeded 
in leading the children of Israel out of their servitude 
in Egypt, and then through forty years to the borders 
of their Promised Land in Palestine. At Mount Horeb 
(Sinai) amid impressive natural phenomena of clouds 
and thunderings, Moses presented the Ten Command- 
ments as delivered by God Himself (Exodus 20: 1-17; 
Deuteronomy 5:1-21). Gratitude for blessings ex- 
perienced in time of distress, and loyalty to God’s com- 
mandments, rather than an intellectual solution of the 
speculative problems of the universe, formed Judaism’s 
approach to the conception of God. 

One of the most significant advances which has ever 
been made among the religions of mankind was made 
under Moses. He led a people through an unforget- 
able experience, which he interpreted as their deliver- 
ance by a righteous God from a condition of social in- 
justice. Moses first established the religion of Judaism 
as an individual and communal faith in a personal 
God of righteousness. 


5. The Mingling of Religions in Palestine (1200-900 
Bagi). | 


When the Hebrews first entered Canaan, they felt 
themselves religiously justified in a certain amount of 
extermination of the inhabitants of the land (Joshua 
10 : 22-26; 11:2-9, 21). But after they had estab- 
lished themselves firmly, and had changed from a no- 
madic type of life into one of settled agriculture, their 
religion also underwent certain noticeable changes. 
They tended toward a policy of accommodation to en- 
vironment rather than superiority above environment. 
They gradually absorbed the local Canaanites, and 


JUDAISM 175 


also assimilated many features of the Canaanitish re- 
ligion. Thus, the Hebrews began to join in the wor- 
ship of the Baals (deities regarded as lords or owners 
of the soil) and of the local Ashteroth (female Semitic 
jgoddesses). The people who had been taught by 
|Moses to maintain the religion of Jehovah sternly aloof, 
now adopted the Canaanitish festivals of spring and 
autumn, harvest and vintage. 





They also built them high places and pillars and Asherim on 
every high hill and under every green tree. They did also ac- 
cording to all the abominations of the nations which Jehovah 
drove out before the children of Israel. (I Kings 14: 23.) 

And they served idols, whereof Jehovah had said unto them, “Ye 
shall not do this thing.’ (II Kings 17: 10-12.) 





This large increment of heathenism slowed down the 
religious growth of Israel perceptibly. Centuries later 
the prophet Ezekiel, speaking of Jerusalem, declared: 
“Your mother was a Hittite, and your father an 
Amorite”’ (Ezekiel 16 : 45), that is to say, the city was 
‘ever a hotbed of paganism mingled with the Hebrew 
religion. 

Under Samuel, Saul, David, and Solomon the He- 
brews achieved an effective nationalism under Jehovah’s 
protection. The division of Solomon’s empire into two 
rival states weakened this unity. Yet when the bold 
Jezebel introduced the Phcenician deity, Elijah was 
able to rouse the people’s latent loyalty to Jehovah 
and to bring about the ultimate expulsion of in- 
vaders (I Kings 16 : 31-33; 18 : 20-40). 


6. The Beginnings of Jewish Religious Literature 
(goo-750 B. C.). 

When the prophets Amos and Hosea preached in 

the eighth century B. C., they evidently assumed that 

the people of Israel were acquainted with the general 


176 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


facts of the previous history as these have come down 
to us. We consequently may assume that the pro- 
phetic narratives from Genesis to I] Kings had been 
taking shape in the period immediately prior to 750 
B. C. The first five of these books are attributed by 
their titles to Moses as author. But he could hardly 
have written the account of his own death and the 
comparison of himself with other subsequent prophets 
(Deuteronomy 34 : 5-10). Scholarly research has shown 
that the first six books of the Old Testament are com- 
posite, their major sections dating from the period be- 
tween Solomon and the earlier of the literary prophets. 

During this period there seem to have been two 
distinct prophetic attempts to put the previous his- 
tory of the Hebrews into a continuous narrative, both 
of which have been merged into the history as we read 
it to-day. This indicates tendencies leading to the 
production of religious literature which came to be re- 
garded as sacred. Historical materials were put to- 
gether in attractive and proportionate form, and were 
generally accepted, under the conviction that the early 
history of the world and of the nation was of the 
utmost significance in manifesting the creative and 
redemptive purpose of God. 


7. The Pre-Exilic Hebrew Prophets (750-586 B. C.). 


For about two centuries prior to the Babylonian 
Captivity the Hebrew people were educated in some 
of the highest ideas of their religion by a series of 
eight remarkable preachers or prophets of God. The 
first four in the half-century before 700 B. C. did their 
special work by shifting the emphasis in religion from 
form and sacrifices to ethical obedience. 

Amos proclaimed the need of personal and national 
obedience to a righteous God; otherwise the worship- 


JUDAISM 177 


pers of Jehovah would be punished, as well as the wor- 
shippers of the gods of the other nations whom the 
Hebrews despised (Amos 2: 6-7; 3: 1-2; 4:1-5; 5: 
18-22). 


Take away from me the noise of thy songs, for I will not bear the 
melody of thy voice. But let justice roll down as waters, and 
righteousness as a mighty stream. (Amos 5: 23-24.) 


Hosea added to Amos’s message of the uncompro- 
mising justice of Jehovah, the very earliest declara- 
tion among the religions of the world, that God loves 
human beings. Through a distressing domestic ex- 
perience Hosea came to the lofty religious conviction 
that God loves persistently, and that therefore He is 
ready to forgive a repentant sinner, though He will not 
flinch from punishment. 


I desire loving kindness and not sacrifice, and the knowledge of 
God rather than burnt offerings. (Hosea 6: 6.) 

Therefore turn thou to thy God. Keep kindness and justice. 
(Hosea 12: 6.) 


Isaiah began his work as a religious leader with a 
vision of the majestic holiness of Jehovah. 


Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts. The whole earth is full of 
His glory. (Isaiah 6: 3.)° 


Amid distressing national and international prob- 
lems Isaiah, like his contemporaries, continued to en- 
large the moral content and the practical application 
of the inherited faith in their tribal deity Jehovah. 
The first chapter in the collection of his sermons con- 
tains some choice examples of Isaiah’s teachings con- 
cerning Jehovah, for example, that His chief interest 
is not in heredity nor in ceremonial sacrifices, but in 
righteousness and in the redemption of the sinful (Isaiah 
1 : 1-20; see also 2: 2-4; 8: 19-20; 28: 7-22). Isaiah 


178 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


pictured concretely a glorious future for Israel, in spite 
of the inevitable punishment which Jehovah must in- 
flict upon the nation’s continued sinfulness. 

Micah definitely rejected the original belief of the 
Jews that their deity would be sure to protect their 
material interests. Instead, he insisted that for the 
sake of their moral interests Jehovah would be sure to 
punish the nation, even by the hand of other nations 
(Micah 3:11-12). Like a towering mountain peak 
among the ranges of the world’s living religions stands 
Micah’s summary of religious duty: 


To do justly, and to love kindness and to walk humbly with thy 
God. (Micah 6:8.) 


The second group of the preexilic prophets belongs 
to the closing years of the monarchy. Zephaniah, like 
Amos, delivered a rousing message of judgment from 
God upon persistent sinfulness. Nahum taught that 
God is both good and strict, and that He is supreme 
among the nations. Habakkuk preached a compre- 
hensive message of judgment and of hope from the 
righteous God. Centuries later, three outstanding 
Christian leaders, Paul, Augustine, and Luther, were 
powerfully influenced by a sentence from this ancient 
Hebrew prophet (Habakkuk 2:4). Jeremiah was the 
prophet who contributed most clearly to religious ad- 
vance in this period. In bitter personal sorrows, Jere- 
miah learned the healing consciousness of fellowship 
with God. He preached also of religious responsibility 
and God’s renewing influence in the heart. 


Behold, saith Jehovah, I will make a new covenant. I will 
put my law in their inward parts, and in their heart ‘will I write 
it. (Jeremiah 31 : 31-33.) 


Jeremiah saw that the righteous individual, rather 







JUDAISM 179 


than the group to which he belongs, is the immediate 
jagent which God uses in promoting His loving pur- 
poses for the world. That principle opened the way 
Jfor an active monotheism, which is much more than 
simply a personally satisfying religion. Jeremiah per- 
haps first furnished the basis for the missionary inter- 
|pretation of religion which holds sway among Christians — 
to-day. “3 Wy retss | . | 


8. The Two Great Religious Leaders of the Exile 
(586-539 B. C.). 


During the half-century of the Exile in Babylonia 
two prophets greatly influenced the religious thinking 
of the Hebrew captives. 

Ezekiel preached the sovereignty of God along with 
divine mercy and forgiveness. He declared that in de- 
portation from their homeland the people had received 
the punishment which they deserved for their un- 
righteousness. Yet Ezekiel taught that this hard ex- 
perience was not merely a penalty, but also a means 
of purification and discipline. Again, belief had been 
that according to the Second Commandment in the 
Mosaic Decalogue God would continue to mete out 
punishment for sin even unto the third and fourth 
generation later (Exodus 20:5; Deuteronomy 5:9). 
Ezekiel, proceeding upon the basis of Jeremiah’s in- 
dividualism, brought a message of hope; he taught a 
person’s own responsibility and opportunity before 
God, irrespective of heredity. 


The soul that sinneth, it shall die. (Ezekiel 18 : 5, 20.) 


Indeed, God Himself would put a new heart into 
the sinner (Ezekiel 11:19). Ezekiel also brought 
comfort, encouragement, and inspiration through his 
sketch of the new community and temple (chapters 


180 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


40-48). This was really the bold assurance that re- 
ligious life would be begun again in Palestine without 
the old political complications. He wanted to or- 
ganize religious worship so thoroughly as to promote, 
and almost to imsure, the blessings which Jehovah 
would give. The main idea was noble, but the focus 
of the picture was upon ceremonial details centring in 
Jerusalem. 


Thus saith the Lord Jehovah: “No foreigner, uncircumcised in 
heart and uncircumcised in flesh, shall enter into my sanctuary.” 
(Ezekiel 44 : 9.) 


So Ezekiel became the father of “Judaism” in the 
narrower technical meaning of the term, as designating 
the religion of the Hebrews who after the Exile were 
called “Jews.” 

Isaiah 40-55 is a collection of religious teachings, 
which seem to refer to the sad experiences of the Exile 
in Babylonia, although they stand attached to chap- 
ters 1-39, which record circumstances in Palestine con- 
nected with the prophet Isaiah of the eighth century 
B.C. Their author is a genius in the depth and 
breadth of his religious insight. Through him the re- 
ligious thinking of Israel was brought to a more fully 
rounded expression. He explained the true significance 
of Israel’s history as a course of divine training. He 
was the first prophet clearly to describe Jehovah as the 
one and only God of the universe (Isaiah 40 : 12-26; 
44: 6-20). 


There is a God else beside me, a just God and a Saviour. (Isaiah 
45:21. 


Isaiah proclaimed God’s choice of Israel as a ser- 
vant made ready by him to help redeem the world and 
to be His witnesses to all mankind. 


JUDAISM Pet 


I will also give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that thou mayest 
be my salvation unto the end of the earth. (Isaiah 49 : 6.) 


This conception of God and of active religion is 
full of majesty, spirituality, and forcefulness. It is 
one of the noblest utterances of Judaism. Soon after 
the Exile, the Jews grew away from the tendency to- 
ward idolatry which they had shown before the Exile, 
despite the early explicit condemnation of it in the 
Second Commandment of the Decalogue. 


9. The Gradual Establishment of Legalistic Judaism 
(621-400 B. C.). 


After the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, in 539 B. C., 
the Jews were permitted to return to their old home in 
Palestine. Only a few accepted the privilege. Hence- 
forth the vast mass of Jews lived outside of their home- 
land. Instead of continuing as farmers, they became 
a race of business people. They spread out in all 


directions as opportunity offered. Yet through their) 


synagogues and rabbis they were kept loyal to Jewish 


ideals and customs, as maintained at Jerusalem. Thus © 


Judaism became influential far beyond the boundaries 
of Judea. 

Under the urgent appeals of Haggai and Zechariah, 
and with the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua, a 
second temple was completed at Jerusalem in 516 
B. C., and regular worship was renewed, while Jeru- 
salem yet lay in ruins. Nearly a century later, under 
the leadership of Nehemiah, Jerusalem was refortified, 
repeopled, and restored to its old distinction in Ju- 
daism. Soon after, under Ezra the Scribe, a movement 
came to a head which had been under way two cen- 
turies earlier. King Josiah had led his people to un- 
dertake to live more perfectly in accord with the prin- 
ciples of the law of Moses as reformulated in the 


182 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


book of Deuteronomy. His reform, with its centraliza- 
tion of worship at Jerusalem, was distinctly Deuter- 
onomic. Then for two centuries this code guided the 
religious life of the Jewish people. However, during 
the Exile and later, possibly because of Ezekiel’s influ-| 
ence, a definite attempt was made to reduce all the 
religious practice of the past into a comprehensive 
scheme. In Ezra’s day this elaborate code of religious 
law, known as the Levitical Code, had been completed. 
It is found in the legal portions of Exodus, Leviticus, 
and Numbers. This code Ezra took with him from 
Babylonia to Palestine. With Nehemiah’s aid he per- 
suaded his people to accept it as the final expression of 
their active loyalty to Jehovah. Its aim was noble, 
for it sought to inspire respect for the holiness of God 
and of His people. But its method was to lay stress 
upon externals; such as the ceremonial purity of priest- 
hood and people, the scrupulous observance of the pre- 
scribed rites and ceremonies, the strict observance of 
the Sabbath, the avoidance of marriages which would 
endanger the purity of Jewish blood, and a vast num- 
ber of details which are significant only for enforcing 
allegiance to Jehovah. Thus, along with the growing 
appreciation of the character of God to which Judaism 
had attained, there also developed an elaborate scheme 
of religious practices, which overshadowed the spiritual 
side of religion. This legalistic tendency was carried 
still farther in later rabbinical Judaism. 


10. The Rise of Apocalypticism (400 B. C.-100 A. D.). 


Along with their moral appeals some of the later 
prophets of Israel, such as Zephaniah, Ezekiel, and 
Joel, emphasized the teaching that Jehovah would 
manifest Himself in sweeping judgments. Despairing 
of their ability as a people to overcome the power of 





JUDAISM 183 


such dominant nations as Persia, they seemed to look 
forward to a sudden putting forth of Jehovah’s power 
to clear away the obstacles in Israel’s pathway. There 
followed a long era of thinking, which was curiously 
different from the prophets’ vigorous application of 
moral principles to actual social sins. The apocalyptic 
writers, such as Daniel, Enoch, and others, became en- 
grossed with dreams of a coming day. Instead of lay- 
ing responsibility upon each individual believer to obey 
the righteous God, they rested their hopes on the divine 
initiative and omnipotence. Instead of trying to better 
the present, they looked entirely toward an idealized 
future. 

This apocalyptic movement, which focussed every- 
body’s thought on an expected deliverance, represented 
a certain magnificent trust in God and committal to 
Him. But it paralyzed personal initiative, and took 
away responsibility. However, one significant result 
was that, amidst experiences which would have an- 
nihilated most people, the faith of the Jews was still 
maintained. 


11. The Conception of the Supreme Being in Judaism. 


The glory of Judaism has been its development of the 
conception of God. The process went through various 
phases. Monotheism was not the gift of Moses. The 
first commandment in the Decalogue does not deny the 
existence of “other gods” than Jehovah, but forbids 
the Hebrews to worship them (Exodus 20:3; Deuter- 
onomy 5:7). So distinctive a builder of the national 
life as David felt that banishment from his country 
meant separation from Jehovah (I Samuel 26:19). , 
Up to and including the eighth century, perhaps even 
nearer to the Babylonian Exile, the Hebrews’ loyalty to 
Jehovah did not prevent them from acknowledging 


184 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


to other peoples a similar right to worship their respec- 
tive deities. The technical name for such a belief is 
henotheism. 

It was the noble series of Hebrew prophets, from 
Amos to the Great Unknown Prophet of the Exile, 
who led the way, step by step, to the truly monothe- 
istic conception of one sole God of the whole world. 
First, the four prophets of the eighth century, Amos, 
Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah, presented Jehovah in dis- 
tinctly moral terms. He is righteous, holy, loving, 
reasonable, and not merely a potentate demanding sub- 
mission. ‘Then the prophets of the seventh and sixth 
centuries before Christ, especially Jeremiah and Eze- 
kiel, emphasized each person’s moral responsibility to 
Jehovah. They declared that righteous individuals, 
rather than the nation as a mass, form the prime essen- 
tial for the fulfilling of God’s gracious purpose for the 
world. ‘The first intimation that non-Jews might par- 
ticipate in Jehovah worship occurs in Jeremiah 12: 
15-17. Finally the immortal chapters, Isaiah 40-55, 
dating probably from the end of the Exile, teach a 
conception of God which disregards all barriers of race 
and space and time. The omnipotent, all-seeing, all-’ 
righteous Creator, Ruler, and Saviour of the world, 
calls upon His servants to carry forth this inspiring 
message through self-sacrifice and suffering. 

This world-wide missionary interpretation of the 
divine plan led up to teachings of Jesus Christ. The 
Jews as a whole did not live up to the highest visions 
of their religion. Their religious interests were chiefly 
in external observance. Perhaps their insistence on 
forms and ceremonies served as a kind of protecting 
shell for the valuable kernel of their religion during the 
dark centuries which followed until the time of Christ. 
Nevertheless, the conception of ethical monotheism, 


JUDAISM 185 


}which had been elaborated gradually out of the hard ex- 
jperiences of life, made the Jews the foremost ethical 
and religious teachers of their time in the whole world. 
They prepared the way for Christianity. 


12. The Messianic Idea. 


One striking feature of Judaism was its cherished 
hope of a Messiah, or Anointed One of God, who would 
accomplish a great consummation. This idea, like that 
of God, had a varied career. ; 

When the Hebrew prophets of the eighth century un- 
folded a higher conception of God, they also formulated 
a certain concrete plan for the working out of the divine 
purpose which came to be of great importance, especially 
in the beginning of Christianity. Those early prophets, 
with all their encouragements for righteousness, taught 
the coming of judgment which would be sweeping and 
in large measure destructive. However, they had such 
confidence in the power and goodness of God that, 
despite the disobedience of men, they believed God’s 
great purpose would still be accomplished, for some 
would always be repentant. Isaiah declared that this 
“remnant” would be given a deliverer and leader, who 
would enable them to fulfil the divine purpose with 
increased success. From that century forward devout 
worshippers of Jehovah have never failed to look for 
some divinely appointed leader. Sometimes he is re- 
ferred to as a coming King (Jeremiah 23:5; 30:9); 
sometimes as a good Shepherd (Micah 5 : 2-5; Ezekiel 
34:23; 37:24); sometimes as a devoted Servant 
(Isaiah 52 : 13-15; 53: 1-12; Ezekiel 34 : 24). 

At first the great expectation was in the form of a 
political restoration of the overthrown kingdom of 
Israel. Later, however, the emphasis came to be laid 
upon a restorer along with the restoration. There are 


186 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


a few evidences that within the sacred scriptures oi 
Judaism the idea of a glorious material future was spiri-} 
tualized into the hope of a universal ideal social order. 
But the elaboration of these great ideas has been taken| 
up more valuably in another religion, Christianity. 
Within the history of Judaism since the beginning of 
Christianity there has arisen a series of at least thirty- 
four Jews, extending to Moses Hayyim Luzatto (died) 
1747 A. D.), who have presented themselves as the ex-| 
pected Messiah mostly in connection with political 
ambitions (Hastings, ERE, 8 : 581-588). Jesus Christ, 
more than any one else born of Jewish parents, has} 
claimed to be, and has been recognized by other per. | 
sons also as being, the finest fulfilment of the spiritual | 
elements in the Jewish Messianic idea. 





13. Judaism as Devotion to the Law of God. 


The Judaism of the fifth century B. C. was ar 
heroic but unsuccessful attempt to standardize right- 
eousness in men. In postexilic Judaism, again the 
Jews at Jerusalem entered into a solemn covenant 

to walk in God’s law, which was given by Moses the servant of 
God, and to observe and do all the commandments of Jehovah 


our Lord and his ordinances and his statutes. (Nehemiah 
10 : 29.) 


Later the rabbis found that the total number of 
commandments represented as proclaimed by Jehovah 
in the first five books of the Law amounts to 613 (Jew- 
ish Encyclopeedia, 4 : 181-186). 

Judaism, like some other religions, has developed 
two distinct types of devotees: those who are intent 
chiefly on the scrupulous observance of the rules of re- 
ligion, and those who are eager for personal fellowship 
with God the Ruler. The writers of many of the later 
Psalms belong, perhaps, in the latter class, even though 


JUDAISM 187 


they could ring the changes of praise on the command- 
ments of Jehovah. , 


Oh, how I love Thy law! (Psalm 119: 97.) 


It was a small circle of such truly devout souls who 
prepared the way for Jesus, and who first recognized 


| in Him the fulfilment of the most devout aspirations 


of Judaism. Such individual Jews are named in the 
New Testament: Mary, the mother of Jesus (Luke 1: 
46-55; 2:51); Zacharias and Elisabeth, the parents of 
John the Baptist (Luke 1 : 5-25, 57-79); Simeon and 


_ Anna, worshippers in the temple at Jerusalem (Luke 


| ete 


Lh =a 


2: 22-38); and John the Baptist, the forerunner of 
Jesus (Matthew 3: 1-11; John 1: 19-36). 

Both types of religion have persisted within Judaism, 
devotion to the Law of God as chiefly ritualistic, legal- 
istic, and centring upon their own religious commu- 
nity, and also the type of devotion to the Law of God 
as chiefly personal obedience to the righteous Supreme 
Being. The former was in direct opposition to Jesus, 
while from the latter came the early disciples. 


14. Judaism in the World To-Day. 


The Jews are the remnants of a disrupted nation, 
now scattered over the face of the earth. More than 
half of their total 11,000,000 are in the country of 
Russia. In the city of New York there are more than 
ten times as many Jews as in Palestine. This virile 
people claim to be religiously indestructible, and they 
have demonstrated their faithfulness for over 3,000 
years. The most notable recent revival is Zionism, a 
movement launched at an international congress in 
1897 to secure an officially recognized national home 
in Palestine. The idea has been partially incorporated 


188 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


into the treaty settlements arranged after the World 
War of 1914-1918. | . : 

The foremost exponents pf Judaism, certainly during | 
the creative period of its history covered by its sacred — 
scriptures, have been zealous for the Law of God. In | 
their reverence for its sacredness they have “built a 
fence around the Law.” Liberal Jews at present tend 
to emphasize only the moral laws of Jehovah as con- 
tained in their scriptures. In its rabbinical phase Ju- 
daism has stressed the external exactions of that law, 
rather than the moral responsibilities and opportuni- 
ties of devotion to the one God of righteousness. Even 
when thus rabbinized, Judaism has not lost educative 
power over its own adherents. However, Judaism as 
a whole has lost the active world-serving missionary 
purpose which stands proclaimed by its own noblest 
exponents. The distinctive and inclusive command of 
Judaism, “Be ye holy, for I Jehovah your God am 
holy,” is explicit in its scriptures. This command has 
been taken bodily over into Christianity. In the New 
Testament (Matthew 5:45; I Peter 1: 16-17) it has 
been cited almost verbatim, but with characteristic 
Christian reinterpretation in relation to the Fatherhood 
of God. 

The practical point at which orthodox and liberal 
Jews differ among themselves, as also from the Chris- 
tians and the Muhammadans who subsequently derived 
their monotheism from Judaism, is the specific man- 
ner in which they seek to be holy in obedience to the 
one God of the whole world. 


15. Elements of Strength in Judaism. 

Its conception of the one supreme holy God. 

Its insistence upon His moral government of the 
world. 


JUDAISM 189 


The ethical conception of sin against God as taught 
by the prophets of Israel. 

The emphasis by the prophets of Israel on He re- 
ligious duty of man to man. 

The direct relationship between God and man as 
taught by the prophets and in some of the Psalms. 

Its emphasis on the joy of obeying God’s law. 

Its conception of worship. 

Its belief in a high spiritual destiny for God’s people. 

Its interest in the welfare of its people. 

Its emphasis on the purity of domestic life. 

Its care for the religious education of its youth. 

Its steadfastness and cohesiveness under afiliction. 


16. Elements of Weakness in Judaism. 

Its general exclusiveness. 

Its undue emphasis on God’s preference for the peo- 
ple of Israel. 

Its insistence upon a past law which allows little ex- 
pansion or progress. | 

The tendency to relapse from the lofty prophetical 
conception of sin as ethical to the conception of sin as 


chiefly ceremonial. 2 
The tendency toward excessive legalism and formes 
ism. a 


The abandonment of effort for the conversion. of es 
world. 


xX 
ZOROASTRIANISM 


Tur RELIGION OF STRUGGLE ALONG WITH A Goop 
BuT LimiteED GoD. AGAINST THE Evin ForcES 
INHERENT IN THE WORLD 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Re- 
ligions. 

Of all the living non-biblical systems of religion the 
one which has had the closest connection with the 
Bible is Zoroastrianism. It is also known as the re- 
ligion of the Parsis, whose original home was in Pars 
or Persia. 


(1) Zoroastrianism’s Historic Connection with the 


Bible. 


This religion is not mentioned by name in the Bible. 
But kings of Persia, who were Zoroastrians, are men- 
‘oned in eight books of the Old Testament (in II 
Of \ronicles 36 : 22-23; Ezra 1:1; 8:1; Nehemiah 2: 1; 
Tther 1:3; 10:2; Isaiah 44:28; 45:1; Daniel 9:1; 
Jey $1; 11:1; Haggai 1:1; Zechariah 1:1). The first 
Gsook in the New Testament reports that the very first 
persons who came to see the new-born Jesus were cer- 
tain wise men from the East, Magi, who may be iden- 
tified as priests of Zoroastrianism (Matthew 2:1). 

Of all the outside religions connected with the Bible, 
whether European or African or Asiatic, Zoroastrianism 
is the only one which has remained alive to the present 
time. Zoroastrians are the only individuals of other 
religions who not only are not condemned in the Bible, 

190 


ZOROASTRIANISM 191 


but who receive a distinct commendation. The Zoro- 
astrian king Cyrus is addressed by Jehovah as “His 
Messiah”? (Isaiah 45:1). Thus the Hebrew designa- 
tion “Messiah”’ is used in the Old Testament as de- 
scriptive of a Zoroastrian several hundred years before 
it became in the New Testament a technical designa- 
tion for Jesus (John 1:4), though more frequently in 
its Greek translation “‘Christ” (Matthew 2:4; 16: 16, 
etc.). Indeed, the Zoroastrian king Cyrus is also re- 
ferred to by Jehovah with another important title, 
“my shepherd”’ (Isaiah 44 : 28), which in another book 
of the Old Testament is used with reference to the 
Lord God Himself (Psalm 23:1). 


(2) Zoroastrianism’s Doctrinal Influence upon the 


Boble. 


Of all the other nine organized living religions, Zoro- 
astrianism is the only one from which a definite religious 
belief has been borrowed and included in the Bible. 
Consistently throughout the Old Testament down to 
and including the Isaiah of the Exile, the ultimate 
source of everything, including evil, is represented as 
the God Jehovah. But a distinct change took place 
after the Exile. A comparison of two parallel accounts 
of a certain experience of King David will show that a 
postexilic document (I Chronicles 21:1) substitutes 
“Satan” for “Jehovah” in the preexilic account (II 


Samuel 24:1). Thus Satan is not an original feature | 


oa 


of the Bible, but was introduced from Zoroastrianism. ‘ 


Perhaps certain other innovations besides the idea 
of a Satan were adopted from Zoroastrianism by the 
Hebrews after they had come into direct contact with 
that religion in the Babylonian Exile: for example, 
the ideas of an elaborate angelology and demonology, 
of a great Saviour or Deliverer to come, of a final resur- 


192 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


~ rection and divine Judgment, and a definitely pictur- 
able future life. Certainly the word for “Paradise”’ 
(Greek, paradeisos) was, at least etymologically, derived 
from Persian origin (Avestan, pairideza). 


(3) The First Attempt at a Universal Religion, Now 
Abandoned. 


Prior to the emergence of a world-wide outlook and 
aim in the course of biblical history, Zoroaster was the 
first among the founders of the world’s living relig- 
ions who taught a religion which should be voluntarily 
and universally adopted. A form of confession of the 
Zoroastrian faith, which stands in the earliest of its 
canonical scriptures, and which is still repeated as part 
of the daily liturgy of its worship, asserts the belief 
that Zoroastrianism is permanently superior over all 
the religions of the world. 


Yea, I praise the Faith of Mazda, the holy creed which is the 
most imposing, best and most beautiful of all religions which 
exist and of all that shall in future come to knowledge.—Ahura’s 
Faith, the Zoroastrian creed. (SBE, 31 : 250.) 


Yet for at least the last 400 years Zoroastrians have 
lost their founder’s vision and purpose, and have been 
maintaining a religion which is as narrowly hereditary 
as any in the whole world. Indeed, numerically the 
adherents of Zoroastrianism, while including some bril- 
liantly able and noble souls, now constitute the smallest 
community among the eleven organized historic re- 
ligions of the world. They number slightly more than 
100,000, most of them being located in the land of 
India. They are descendants of unyielding devotees 
of their faith, who escaped from the sword of Arab 
conquerors devastating Persia in the seventh century 
A. D. 


ZOROASTRIANISM. 193 
2. The Life of Zoroaster (660-583 B. C.). 


His followers have always revered Zoroaster as the 
most adorable personage in history. But there has 
been much uncertainty and variety of opinion con- 
cerning the actuality and date of his existence— 
whether 6000 B. C., or 1400 B. C., or 1000 B. C.! 


(1) Alleged Supernatural Preliminaries. 


Later Zoroastrian documents report many marvel- 
lous items in connection with the beginning of Zoro- 
aster’s life. Prophecies of this great Saviour had been 
made 3,000 years beforehand, and also 300 years be- 
forehand (SBE,: 5:21; 47:31-34, 135-138). The 
Glory of God (Ahura Mazda) was transmitted to 
“that girl who became the mother of Zoroaster”’ 
(SBE, 47:17-18). It “came down from the endless 
light, and mingled with the mother of Zoroaster,’ who 
was fifteen years old at the time (SBE, 47 : 138-139). 
Marvels connected with this very unusual young un- 
married woman were inexplicable to her family, except 
as a piece of witchcraft (SBE, 47 : 18-20). The Latin 
writer Pliny Secundus (A. D. 23-79) in his “Natural 
History”’ (7:15) records an item which is referred to 
five times in the Zoroastrian scriptures. 


At birth he laughed outright. (SBE, 47:35, 41, 123, 142, 143.) 


The infant’s life was miraculously preserved many 
times (SBE, 4 : 224-225; 47 : 35-40). 


(2) Life up to His “Call” (Age 1-30). 
As a young boy, Zoroaster was unusually wise in 


| ‘ 
conversation. 

1 The problems of historicity have been treated in a comprehensive critical study, 
entitled “Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran”’ (1901), by Professor A. V. Williams 
Jackson, who places the latest possible and most probable dates of Zoroaster at 
660-583 B.C., though some scholars still incline to an earlier period. 


194 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


A great wonder became manifest owing to the powerful intellect, 
cautiousness and practise of Zoroaster, when the other children 
were excessively terrified at their own silliness of speech, and 
the sagacity of his reply at that childishage. (SBE, 47 : 43, 45.) 


When he became fifteen years of age, he selected the 
sacred girdle as a symbol of his devotion to a life of 
religion (SBE, 47: 151). He was very kind and help- 
ful to the poor, and also to animals (SBE, 47 : 153). 


“When he became twenty years old, without the consent of his 
father and mother he wandered forth, and departed from their 
house,” and gave himself to religion. (SBE, 47 : 152-153.) 

*“When his father sought a wife for him, Zoroaster argued,”’ con- 
trary to te a desiring first to see and approve of her. (SBE, 
47: 153. 


A turning-point came at the age of thirty, when 
Zoroaster felt himself called into the presence of Ahura 
Mazda, to be purified and appointed to the work of 
a prophet (SBE, 37:31; 47: 14-15, 154-159). The 
very first passage in the whole Avesta represents dra- 
matically the divine call and appointment as coming 
through “the wail of the kine,” 7. e., through the con- 
crete social need of his agricultural community, who 
were being hard pressed by invading Turanians (SBE, 
31:3). The deity Ahura Mazda is represented as 
having selected Zoroaster on account of his pre-eminent 
responsiveness and fitness. 


This man is found for me here, who alone has hearkened to our 
enunciations. (SBE, 31: 10-11.) 


Yet the kine protested that in him they would be 
recelving 


a lord a is a powerless, feeble, pusillanimous man. (SBE, 
Slishh i: 


(3) Vistons of a World-Wide Religion ; One 
Preaching (Age 30-42). 


ZOROASTRIANISM 195 


During the next ten years he had seven further “‘con- 
ferences”? with Ahura Mazda (SBE, 37:32). He was 
firmly convinced of his own selection and his appoint- 
ment by the deity. 


I was ordained by Thee at the first. All others I look upon with 
hatred of spirit. (Yasna, 44:11; Moulton, EZ, 368.)! 


Zoroaster avowed the purpose of preaching a uni- 
versal progressive religion and of converting even the 
wicked. 


This do Thou tell us, Mazda, that we may know even with the 
tongue of thine own mouth, that I may convert all living men. 
(Yasna, 31:3; Moulton, EZ, 352.) 

Through this word of promise on our tongue will we turn the rob- 
ber horde unto the Greatest. (Yasna, 28 : 5; Moulton, EZ, 345.) 

And may we be such as bring on this great renovation, and make 
this world progressive. (SBE, 31 : 33-84.) 


He gave himself as a complete self-sacrifice to God. 


As an offering, Zoroaster brings the life of his own body, the 
choiceness of good thought, action and speech unto Mazda. 
(Yasna, 33:14; Moulton, EZ, 360.) 


He condemned the filthy, deceiving intoxicant (Moul- 
ton, EZ, 379). 

He preached the religion of an all-seeing God (Moul- 
ton, EZ, 371). He was a vehement preacher of the 
truths first revealed to him divinely, and a denouncer 
of his opponents. 

Those of you who put not into practise this word as I think and 


utter it,—to them shall be woe at the end of life. (Moulton, 
EZ, 370.) 


One time in winter he was refused shelter in a certain 
house, even for his “two steeds shivering with cold” 
(Moulton, EZ, 386). He was tempted by the lying 

1 Some passages in the Yasna are quoted from the translation in Moulton, “‘ Early 
Zoroastrianism,” which is cited henceforth as Moulton, EZ. Otherwise the trans- 


lations are taken from the“ Sacred Books of the East.” The page references to 
vol. IV of the SBE are to the second edition of 1895, not to the first edition of 1880. 


196 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


evil spirit to renounce the religion of Mazda, and to 
obtain temporal sovereignty; but the insidious attack 
was repelled by prayer and worship (SBE, 4 : 210-212). 
He became discouraged. He was rejected both by his 
own peers and by the nobles. He pleaded with God 
for friendly support. 


To what land shall I flee? How am I to please Thee, Mazda 
Ahura? I am without success! Few cattle are mine! I have 
but few folk! J cry unto Thee. See Thou to it, Ahura, grant- 
ing me support as friend gives to friend! Teach me by the Right 
the acquisition of Good Thought! (Yasna, 46: 1-2; Moulton, 
EZ, 372.) 


He wondered whether he would receive God’s 
promises. 


This I ask: tell me truly, Ahura, whether I shall indeed, O Right, 
earn that reward, even ten mares with a stallion and a camel, 
which was promised to me, O Mazda, as well as through Thee 
the future gift of welfare and immortality. (Yasna, 44:18; 
Moulton, EZ, 369.) 


Only one poor convert was made in ten years of 
preaching (SBE, 47 : 163-164). But the last words in 
the Gathas express trust in the righteous God (Yasna, 
53:9; Moulton, EZ, 389-390). 


I have faith that Thou wilt thyself fulfil this for me. (Yasna, 
46:3; Moulton, EZ, 373.) 


(4) Success at the Court of Persia; Vigorous Promul- 
gation of the Faith (Age 42-57). 

Another turning-point in the life and character of 
Zoroaster came with the conversion of the king, Vista- 
spa (Yasna, 28:7; 46:14; 51:16; 53:2; also SBE, 
47: 50, 67, 72). Also the king’s brother, son, a coun- 
sellor, and the grand vizier were converted. 


Several of the realm, who were noble, conspicuous, and well- 
acting, beheld visibly the will and desirability of Ahura Mazda 


ZOROASTRIANISM “197 


and the archangels and the progressive religion. (SBE, 47: 
125.) 


The names of eighty-nine early converts along with 
the king are recorded (SBE, 23 : 203-211). Zoroaster 
married the daughter of the king’s counsellor (Jackson, 
** Zoroaster,” 76). 


And Zoroaster the righteous had three wives. And all three were 
living throughout the life-time of Zoroaster. 

By Zoroaster were begotten three sons and three daughters. Two 
of the sons, named Auvartad-Nar and Khursed-Kihar, were 
from a privileged wife. 

Khursed-Kihar was a warrior, commander of the army of a son 
of Vistaspa. (SBE, 5: 142, 143, note 1.) 


A daughter of Zoroaster was married to the grand 
vizier (Dinkard, 9:45. 4; SBE, 37. 299, n. 4). Her 
bridal hymn forms a chapter in the part of the sacred 
scriptures which was written by Zoroaster (Yasna, 53). 
The king himself became a “gallant, mighty-speared’”’ 
propagator of the new faith (SBE, 23 : 204-205; Jack- 
son, “‘Zoroaster,” 81). 


The king accepted it, and made it current in the world. (SBE, 
37 : 442.) 

Royal sons accepted the religion as a yoke, while they even wan- 
dered to Arum [Asia Minor] and the Hindus, outside the realm, 
in propagating the religion. (SBE, 24: 171.) 


(5) ““Holy Wars,” Final Twenty Years (Age 57-77). 


A policy of violence may be found advocated in the 
sacred scriptures; only once, however, by the founder, 
but more often in the later documents. 


Hew ye them all with the halberd. (Yasna, 31:18; SBE, 31: 50.) 

The faith that wields the felling halberd. (Yasna, 12:9; SBE, 
31 : 250.) 

Him of the daring spear, devoted to the Lord. (Yasna, 57:1; 
SBE, 31 : 297.) 


Materials are lacking for determining the extent to 


198 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


which Zoroastrianism in this period associated itself 
with a policy of militaristic nationalism. ‘The records 
are explicit that the king, Vistaspa, and his brother in- 
voked divine aid, and won victory over eight powerful 
unbelieving foes (SBE, 23:'79, 117, 306). Zoroaster 
gave religious support to the king in refusing tribute 
to an invading neighbor king; more than 100,000 Per- 
sian soldiers were engaged in the fighting (Jackson, 
“*Zoroaster,” 103-119). 


In the wars of the religion the Iranians were saved. (SBE, 5: 40.) 


The death of Zoroaster is not mentioned in the 
Avesta. But it is repeatedly reported in extracanoni- 
cal documents as having occurred when he was seventy- 
seven years old, at the hands of attacking Turanians, 
probably at the storming of the city of Balkh. 


3. The Veneration of Zoroaster. 


The founder of Zoroastrianism has done more to 
turn men’s thoughts to a vigorous good God than has 
any other person born in Persia. Undoubtedly Zoro- 
aster has been the most venerated figure in the whole 
history of his native land. 


(1) The Character of Zoroaster. 


In the earliest autobiographical portion of the Mtrcd 
scriptures he is represented as an earnest humble man, 
who became discouraged and tempted, but who felt 
an impelling call of God to preach the religion of the 
one “Wise Lord”’ for the salvation of his own people 
and even of the whole world. Yet even in his early 
evangelistic zeal there are indications of an animosity 
which was bitterly personal and vindictive. 


Others I look on with hatred of spirit. (Moulton, EZ, 368.) 


ZOROASTRIANISM 199 


Upon a certain opponent, Bendva, he prays for “‘ruin” (Yasna 
49: 1; Moulton, EZ, 380) or “death.” (SBE, 31 : 162.) 

Whoso seeks to kill me is a son of the Lie’s creation. (Yasna 
51: 10; Moulton, EZ, 385; SBE, 31: 182.) 


But after a certain delayed success with conversions 
in the court of Persia, Zoroaster turned to a policy of 
military propaganda in the interests of his nation and 
his religion, and conducted warfare against neighboring 
nations. 


(2) The Later Veneration of Zoroaster. 


The later documents of Zoroastrianism represent him 
as morally superlative, the acme of humanity, super- 
naturally originated, deserving of religious worship 
along with the deity Ahura Mazda and other cosmic 
being (SBE, $1 : 255, 325, 327). 


“Head of the two-footed race”; “the wisest of all beings in the 
' perfection of his holiness’’; “‘the only one who can daunt evil.” 
(SBE, 23: 190, 229, 275.) 

“The chieftainship of all things was from Zoroaster”’; “‘the com- 
pletely good, the righteous Zoroaster.”” (SBE, 5:88; 18 : 90.) 
Incomparable among mankind through his desire for righteous- 
ness, and his understanding the means of defeating the de- 

stroyer, and teaching creatures. (SBE, 37 : 241.) 

A heavenly radiance “‘came down from the endless light” to the 
grandmother of Zoroaster for his birth from a radiantly wonder- 
ful virgin mother. (SBE, 47 : 18-20, 138-139.) 

He was pre-existent 3,000 years before his physical birth, and 
during the interval he remained with the archangels “‘equal to 
the archangels.” (SBE, 47:21, 22, 122.) 


4. The Sacred Scriptures of Zoroastrianism. 


The inclusive name is “Avesta,” which perhaps 
means “knowledge,” thus being parallel with the 
“Veda” of Hinduism. The language is Avestan, cog- 
nate with Sanskrit. The extant remnants of a more 
extensive original Avesta are arranged in five main 
groups. / 

The Yasna, meaning worship or sacrifice, 1s the earli- 


200 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


est and most important section. Embedded within the 
Yasna are seventeen Gathas (Psalms), which form the 
only part of the Avesta attributable to Zoroaster him- 
self. The Visperad, meaning invocations to “All the 
Lords,” is a minor liturgical work, which is used along 
with the Yasna in worship. The Vendidad (Law against 
the Demons) is a priestly code of ceremonial laws, 
which contains also some cosmological, historical, and 
eschatological material. 

The foregoing three constitute the larger and more 
important part of the whole Avesta. They are used 
interspersed in ritual, and are reserved exclusively for 
the priests. ‘The Yashts (Worship Hymns) is an an- 
thology of religious poetry, containing invocations to 
twenty-one angels and heroes of Zoroastrianism. ‘The 
Khorda-Avesta (Little Avesta) is a devotional hand- 
book of litanies and prayers for common use by all 
Zoroastrians. An extensive and important later re- 
ligious literature has also been produced. 


5. The History of Zoroastrianism. 

The external history of this religion has been closely 
connected with the history of its native land, eee 
during the last period. 


(1) National Revival and Expansion, 100 Years (583- 
480 B. C.). 

Persia was immediately reanimated by the new re- 
ligion. Its armies conquered the powerful western 
neighbor, Babylonia (539 B. C.), developed the great 
empire which Darius ruled, and pushed onward into 
Kurope until stopped at the battle of Salamis. 


(2) Struggle with Greece, 150 Years (480-330 B. C.). 


The Greek writers were deeply impressed by the re- 
ligion of their combatants from Asia. Herodotus vis- 


ZOROASTRIANISM ~ 201 


ited and described Persia. Plato was prevented from 
fulfilling his desire to go to Persia and study Zoroastri- 
anism by the Greeco-Persian Wars, which ended with 
Alexander’s complete victory. 


(3) Subjugation and Relapse, 550 Years (330 B. C.- 
296 A. D.). 


Persia came under the rule of foreigners, at first 
Alexander’s Greek successors, and then the Parthians. 
Zoroastrianism in this period showed a marked ten-- 
dency to sun-worship and polytheism connected with 
the religion of Mithra. 


(4) Independence, 400 Years (226-657 A. D.). 


Ardeshir I, an ardent devotee of Zoroastrianism, re- 
established Persia’s independence, conquered neighbor- 
ing Armenia, and founded the Sassanian dynasty. His 
rock reliefs picture the Zoroastrian deity as handing to 
him the ring of sovereignty. 


(5) Eviction from Persia, and Quiescence, 1300 Years 


(from 637 A. D.). 


The Arabs, another small nation electrified by a 
new religion, Islam, conquered Persia, and drove out 
most of the Zoroastrians. ‘The modern Parsis are scat- 
tered in successful business all over the world, but the 
majority of them are in the Bombay Presidency. 
They have furnished some of the most public-spirited 
citizens in all India. In philanthropic gifts they hold 
the highest per-capita record of any religious com- 
munity in the world. 


6. The Conception of the Supreme Being, Ahura 
Mazda. 

Zoroastrianism teaches that there is one deity, to be 

worshipped supremely—the power of light, life, truth, 


202 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


goodness. His special name is Ahura Mazda (Wise 
Lord, or Lord of Wisdom). This compound designation 
became abbreviated in later Zoroastrianism to Auhar- 
mazd, or Ormazd. ‘The first verse in the whole Avesta 
is an adoration of the deity. 


Ahura Mazda, the creator, radiant, glorious, greatest and best, 
most beautiful, most firm, wisest, most perfect, the most boun- 
teous Spirit! (SBE, 31 : 195-196.) 


This deity appears to have been only one among 
several objects of worship in Persia. Zoroaster’s spe- 
cial work was to emphasize and ethicize this belief, 
even as Amos and other contemporary prophets in 
Israel did with the conception of Jehovah. 


Zoroaster asked Ahura Mazda: “O Thou, all-knowing Ahura 
Mazda! Thou art never asleep, never intoxicated! Vohu 
Manah (Good Thought) gets defiled. The Devas (Demons) 
defile him.” (SBE, 4: 215-216.) 


Some noble characteristics are attributed to Ahura 
Mazda in the Gathas, which is the portion of the Avesta 
composed by Zoroaster: 


Creator: (Yasna, 31:7, 11; 44:7; 50:11; 51:7.) 

All-seeing : (Yasna, 31:13; 44: 2.) 

All-knowing : (Yasna, 31:13; 45:3; 48 :2-3.) 

Most mighty, greatest : (Yasna, 28:5; 33:11; 45:6.) 

Friendly : (Yasna, 31:21; 44:2; 46 : 2.) 

Father of Justice or Right, Asha: (Yasna, 44:3; 47:2.) 

Father of Good Mind, Vohu Manah: (Yasna, 31:8; 45: 4.) 

Beneficent, hudae: (Yasna, 45:6; 48:3.) 

Bountiful, spenta:! (Yasna, 43:4, 5,7, 9, 11, 13, 15; 44:2; 45:5; 
46:9; 48:3; 51:10.) 

Most bountiful spirit, spenishta mainyu (Yasna 80 : 5.) 


The first Yasht contains a list of twenty names of 
Ahura Mazda revealed unto Zoroaster. 
1The phrase “Holy Spirit,” which Moulton uses for rendering the original words, 


epenta mainyu, probably connotes to most English readers more > than was intended 
by Zoroaster. 


ZOROASTRIANISM 203 


eon these My names every day and every night. (SBE, 
23 : 26. 


A longer list of fifty-four names contains the follow- 
ing: 
I am the Keeper, Health-Bestower, Priest, Most-Priestly-of- 
Priests, Prosperity-Producer, King-Who-Rules-at-His-Will, Lib- 
eral-King, He-Who-Deceives-Not, He-Who-Is-Not-Deceived, 


Energetic-One, Holiness, Great-One, Good-Sovereign, Wisest- 
of-the-Wise. (SBE, 23 : 27-28.) 


Later liturgical books contain a list of 101 honorific 
names of Ahura Mazda. 


7. The Devil, Angra Mainyu. 


Condemnation of the evil and impurity in the world 
was a fundamental feature in the teaching of the 
founder and in all subsequent Zoroastrianism. ‘“‘De- 
ceit,” personalized as Druj (the Lie-demon), and all 
deceivers and liars as constituting his brood, are vitu- 
perated at least sixty-six times in the Gathas. The 
particular name, “Angra Mainyu,” as designating the 
supreme hostile spirit, occurs only once in the teaching 
of Zoroaster. But that passage states explicitly that 
from the beginning of existence there have been two 
inherently incompatible, antagonistic spirits in the 
world (Yasna, 45:2). Inall the later Zoroastrian docu- 
ments “‘Angra Mainyu,” which is also abbreviated into 
“Ahriman,” occurs as frequently as does the phrase 
** Ahura Mazda.” 


The Greeks as early as Aristotle were familiar with the Persian 
appellation, Areimanios, which the Latins adopted as Ari- 
manius. (Hastings, ERE, 1 : 237.) 


An aboriginal and distinctive feature of Zoroastri- 
anism among all the religions of the world is this doc- 
trine of a fundamental cosmological dualism of a good 


204 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


God and a wicked devil fighting against one another. 
These two cosmic powers are coequal from the begin- 
ning of time, and they will continue to limit each other 
until the end of the world. 


8. Retinues of Accompanying Spirits. 


Zoroaster did not altogether disentangle his belief in 
the Wise Lord to whom supreme allegiance is due, 
from his inherited belief in a number of other spirits. 
Some of these were nature deities in contemporary re- 
ligion, and some were dreaded evil spirits. The first 
chapter in the first book of the Avesta directs that 
worship be accorded first to Ahura Mazda, and then 
to a long, unsystematic list of objects; for example, to 
sun, moon, and stars; to fire, wind, waters, and moun- 
tains; to the spirits of departed saints, and 


to all the holy creatures of Spenta Mainyu, male and female. 
(SBE, 31 : 195-203.) 


(1) An Array of Good Spirits. 

A spirit which is always associated with Ahura 
Mazda, yet at least poetically distinguished from the 
deity, is designated in the Gathas five times as “ Boun- 
tiful Spirit” (spenta mainyu), and eight times as “Most 
Bountiful Spirit” (spenishta mainyu). 

There is a group of “Bountiful Immortals,’ Amesha 
Spentas, later abbreviated to Amshapands. These are 
frequently referred to in the Gathas individually, 
though only once all in the same verse (Yasna, 47:1). 


Vohu Manah: Good Mind, Thought, Disposition. 
Asha: Right, Righteousness, Order, Justice. 
Kshathra: Power, Dominion, Kingdom. 

Armaiti: Piety, Love. 

Haurvatat : Wholeness, Weal, Health. 
Ameretat : Immortality, Eternal Life. 


ZOROASTRIANISM 205 


Originally these were common nouns, denoting re- 
ligious characteristics. Perhaps they were treated po- 
etically as messengers, functionaries, or attributes of 
Ahura Mazda. In the history of Zoroastrianism they 
have become technical theological terms for personal- 
ized beings, connected with Ahura Mazda, yet dis- 
tinguished from the deity. ‘They have also been desig- 
nated as archangels. 

Yazatas, or angels, are minor sacred beings in Zoro- 
‘astrianism. The Fravarshis are heavenly counter- 
parts, or guardian angels, of human beings. 


(2) An Array of Evil Spirits. 

Systematically opposed to Ahura Mazda and his 
good spirits are Angra Mainyu, and “numberless 
myriads”’ of demons (SBE, 23:49). Among them are 
Hunger, Thirst, Wrath, Arrogance, Greed, False Speech, 
Drought, Winter, Harlot. The general name for these 
evil spirits is “‘Dzeva,” which in the later Persian lan- 
guage became “Diu,” which, in turn, became the 
origin of the English word “‘devil.’”? The third main 
group of documents in the Avesta is occupied with 
purifications prescribed against the baneful influence 
of the innumerable noxious beings. 


9. Ceremonial Purity, Worship, and Prayer. 


The Zoroastrians have been referred to commonly, 
but inexactly, as “‘fire-worshippers.’” They themselves 
heartily repudiate this characterization. ‘They regard 
fire, especially the sun, as a symbol of a deity of light, 
purity, and grateful warmth. However, the main- 
tenance of an undying sacred fire in connection with 
formal worship-has been an important feature of Zoro- 
astrianism through a period which is several centuries 
longer than the entire history of Christianity. 


206 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS | 


It is necessary to maintain the fireplace properly, and to keey | 


watch that the fire shall not die out, and that nothing polluted 
and impure shall attain to the fire. And it is necessary to make 


a menstruous woman avoid being within three steps of it. 
Sad-Dar, 11:1. (SBE, 24: 270.) 


Various ceremonial purifications are prescribed in the 
sacred scriptures. 


Hair-cuttings and nail-parings should be properly disposed of. | 
Vendidad, 17:1-11. (SBE, 4: 190-192.) 

Whenever a person sneezes, he should offer prescribed prayers.| 
Sad-Dar, 7:1-7. (SBE, 24 : 265-266.) 

Properly cut tooth-picks alone should be used. Sad-Dar, 17: 1- 2. | 
(SBE, 24 : 278.) 


Various formulas are efficacious 


0 


for cleansing from allevil. Vendidad, 3: 41-42. (SBE, 4 : 33-34.) 


Purity is for man, next to life, the greatest good. Vendidad, 5: £1; 
10:18. (SBE, 4:56, 141.) 


In the open “Towers of Silence” particular care is 
exercised in the exposing of corpses, in order that 


they may not touch and contaminate either earth o1 
fire. 


A sin for which there is no atonement—the burying of the dead. 
Vendidad, 1:13. (SBE, 4:7.) 


Zoroastrians claim that their code of ceremonial 
purity, as elaborated in the Vendidad, is the most 
thoroughgoing, ancient, and still operative programme 
of enlisting religion in conjunction with sanitation for 
safeguarding the health of the living. 

Zoroastrian worship consists chiefly in repeating pre- 
scribed prayers, of which there are many, both daily 
and seasonal (SBE, 31 : 367-388). The two most im- 
portant are referred to by their first words, like “‘ Pater 
Noster” for the Latin form of the “‘Lord’s Prayer” in 
Christianity: 


ZOROASTRIANISM 207 


* Ahuna-vairo,” often abbreviated to “‘Honover”: “The will of 
the it is the law of righteousness.”” (SBE, 4: 100, 143, 216; 
23 : 39. 

**Ashem-vohu”’: ‘‘Holiness is the best of all good.” (SBE, 4: 
216; 23: 30, 34.) 


;A recurring summary of the Zoroastrian Confession 
oi Faith mentions the following items: 





I confess myself a worshipper of Mazda, a follower of Zoroaster, 
one who hates the Deevas (Evil Spirits), and who obeys the law 
of Ahura. (SBE, 31: 202, 212, 247, 367.) 


10. The Ethics of Zoroastrianism. 

A summary of ceremonial and practical Zoroastri- 
anism might be made in the form of an exhortation, 
which is to be applied both literally and symbolically: 
Keep the light burning! The ideal Zoroastrian is pic- 
tured by the founder as 


a faithful man, well-knowing and bountiful, like Thee, O Mazda. 
(Yasna, 43:3; Moulton, EZ, 364.) 


- Almsgiving helps forward the kingdom of God. 
He who relieves the poor, makes Ahura king. (SBE, 4: 210.) 


Good treatment is prescribed toward good people, 
but ill treatment toward the wicked. 
Whether one is lord of little or of much, he is to show love to the 


righteous; but be ill unto the liar. (Yasna, 47:4; Moulton, 
EZ, 377; also Yasna, 33: 2-3; Moulton, EZ, 358.) 


Violence against adversaries is explicitly prescribed. 


Resist them then with weapon. (Yasna, 31:18; Moulton, EZ, 
354; also SBE, 31:50, 250, 297.) 

With enemies fight with equity. With a friend proceed with the 
approval of friends. (SBE, 24:12.) 


Thrifty husbandry, not asceticism, is the practical 
application and need of religion. 


208 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


He who sows most corn, grass and fruit, sows righteousness; he 
makes the religion of Mazda walk. ... No one who does 
not eat, has strength to do the heavy works of holiness. (SBE, 
4: 29-31.) 


The most highly prized single virtue in Zoroastri- 
anism is purity. : 
Make thy own self pure, O righteous man! Any one in the world 
here below can win purity for his own self, namely, when he 


cleanses his own self with good thoughts, words, and deeds. 
(SBE, 4: 141.) 


The formula from their sacred scriptures which re- | 
curs most frequently in conversations with the Parsis, 
and which is most fairly representative of their ethics, is: 


Hu-mata, Hu-ktha, Hu-varshata: good thoughts, good words, good 
deeds. (SBE, 4:56, 289, 376; 31: 250, 282, 285, 390.) 


rz. The Final Hope in Zoroastrianism. 


Zoroastrianism probably first among the living re- 
ligions taught the ultimate triumph of moral goodness 
over the moral evils in the world. One of the earliest 
and most persistent messages of Zoroaster himself was 
a great dividing future judgment, with punishment for 
the wicked and reward for the righteous. 





Yasna, 30: 2,.4;°9-11; $1::8,-.19; 82:6, 15: Sa egcepeee see 
45:7; 46:12; 48:4; 51:6; 53: 7-9. 


Immortality was desired or assured at least seven- 
teen times in his seventeen Gathas. 


Yasna, 31:21; 32:5; 33:5, 8; 34:1, 11; 43:2-3; 44:17-18; 
45°52, 105 4791: 48213 GL evs part: 


A great revealing bodily resurrection of the dead was 
intimated by Zoroaster perhaps only once (Yasna, 30: 
7). But the idea recurs frequently and vividly in the 
later scriptures. 


ZOROASTRIANISM 209 


In that assembly a wicked man becomes as conspicuous as a 
white sheep among those which are black. (SBE, 5: 123.) 


The narrow Chinvat bridge is the most frequent and 
‘haracteristic single detail in the Zoroastrian picture of 
he process of separating the good souls from the wicked 
ifter death. 


In the Gathas three times: Yasna, 46:10, 11; 51:13. 
Elsewhere in the Yasna: 19:6; 71: 16. 
Also SBE, 4: 156, 218-219; 23: 12, 20, 339; 24: 258; 31: 345. 


Other concrete analogies are used in the pictures of 
he decisive future Judgment. 


One’s own actions will confront each soul after death in the form 
of a good or an evil conscience. (Yasna, 31:20; 46:11; also 
SBE, 23 : 315-321.) 

Two angels record each person’s good and evil deeds. (SBE, 
24: 258.) : 

The soul will be weighed in a balance. (SBE, 24:18.) 





Heaven is the reward for good thoughts. Sensual 
eatures are completely absent. 


The glorious heritage of good thought. (Yasna, 53:4; also 30:4, 
TO Sie Leos toy Gos os .0u) 


Hell is described as an age-long and lonely misery 
if punishment for liars (Yasna, 30:11; 45:7; 46:11). 
Mnly twice are gruesome details given in the Gathas. 


Darkness, foul food, and woful words. (Yasna, 31:20; 49:11.) 


A future savior, Soshyant, is expected. 


In the Gathas: Yasna, 45:11; 48: 9. 
' Elsewhere in the Yasna : 26:9; 59: 28. 
Also SBE, 4: 211; 5:33; 23 : 220-221, 306-307; 31 : 339; 47: 156. 


_ Before the end of the world, at intervals of a thou- 
r years each, there will be three saviors: Aushedar, 


\ 


210 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Aushedar-Mah, and Soshyant. Each will be a super-. 
natural descendant from Zoroaster, and born of a 
virgin mother just as old as was the mother of Zoro- 
aster when he was born. 


Though fifteen years old, the damsel has not before that associ- 
ated with men. Nor afterwards, when she becomes pregnant, | 
has she done so before the time when she gives birth. (SBE, 
47: 106, 111, 115.) 


At the end of time there will come a final apocalyptic | 
purifying and ceremonial consummation. Zoroaster 
himself seems to have referred somewhat vaguely to a 
future divine testing by a glowing fire (Yasna, 43: 4), 
and to a purification by molten metal (Yasna, 30:73. 
32:7). But a much later document presents a de-| 
tailed picture of events after the resurrection of the 
dead, the final judgment, the separation of the right- 
eous from the wicked, and the sending of the two 
groups into heaven and hell respectively. 


Then all men will pass into that melted metal, and become pure. 
. . . All men become of one voice, and administer loud praise 
to Ahura Mazda and the archangels. Ahura Mazda completes | 
his work at that time. . . . Soshyant with his assistants per- | 
form a Yazisn ceremony. And they slaughter the ox... . 
From the fat of that ox they prepare Hush, and give it to all | 
men. And all men become immortal for ever and everlasting. 
(SBE, 5: 126.) 


12. Elements of Strength in Zoroastrianism. | 


Its personal, ethical, helpful Deity. 

Its early universal vision for religion. 

Its early enthusiastic missionary zeal. 

Its clear appreciation of antagonism between good 
and evil. | 

Zoroaster’s emphasis on personal choice and respon- | 
sibility. 

Its high valuation of individual human personality. 





ZOROASTRIANISM 211 


Its emphasis on activity, not on asceticism or in- 
difference. 

Its emphasis on a religious life socially valuable. 

Its emphasis on man’s co-operation with God for 
common good. 

A certain ethical ideal of final judgment. 

Its hope of a final triumph of moral goodness. 

A devoted founder admirable in so many respects. 


13. Elements of Weakness in Zoroastrianism. 


Its lack of a winsomely inspiring founder. 

Positive moral defects in the founder—vindictive 
and militaristic. 

No great subsequent prophet or missionary leader. 

Its polytheistic tendency through lack of genuine 
monotheism. 
~ Its total loss of original missionary world-outlook. 
| Its tendency to formal stereotyped legalistic cere- 
monialism. 

Its scriptural advocacy of the method of force. 

Its historic lack of much dynamic, except military. 

Its failure to perceive any value in suffering. 

Its too easy satisfaction with merely the good, rather 
than a progressive quest of the best. 

Its too easy blaming all evil onto a primeval Devil. 

Its inconsistent and insufficient basis for its admira- 
ble optimism. 

Its too exclusive dependence upon apocalyptic for 
its final success. 


XI 


ISLAM, OR MUHAMMADANISM 


R\ Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


Numerically, Islam stands next to Confucianism, as 


~ the largest non-Christian religion. And next to Chris- 


tianity it is the fastest growing in the whole family of 
religions. 

When classified as regards the method of origin, 
Islam is found to be one of nine which originated from 
the religious experience and teachings of a great crea-_ 
tive founder. The other two, Hinduism and Shinto, 
have been a spontaneous communal growth. As re- 
gards its outlook on the world, Islam is one of three 
universal religions—along with Buddhism and Chris- 
tianity. The other eight are hereditary or national. 
As regards theology, Islam is one of four / ‘monotheistic \ 
religions—along with Judaism, Sikhism, and Christian- * 
ity. The other seven are pantheistic, dualistic, or poly- 
theistic. Thus, among eleven living religions in the 
world Islam is the only one which stands classified 
along with Christianity as possessing the three im- 
portant characteristics of “being personally founded, 


“universal, and monotheistic. 


Chronologically, Islam is the latest among the world’s 
religions—with the exception of Sikhism, whose follow- 
ers form a relatively small community confined within 
the land of India. There also exist a few modern or- | 
ganized cults like Bahaism, Theosophy, and the Ethical 
Culture Society, which are quite independent of any 
other religion, and which have spread outside of the 
land of their birth. But none of them as yet has lived 
as long as a century. Among the larger historic re-_ 

ere 


MUHAMMADANISM 213 


ligions Islam, with its’ 1, 300) ‘years of history,is_the only 
one which originated Jater than the Christian era. It 
is the only_ one now which is an active rival of Christi- 
anity in more than one continent. It is the only re- 
ligion which started in conscious_opposition to Christi- 
anity. Yet it has not contributed a single new ger- 
minal idea to the religious thought of the world. The 
name which the founder himself used for designating 
this faith expresses exactly the central De Ee 
“Islam,” meaning “submission” to God (3:17; 3:79; 
5:5; 6:125; 39:23).1. Another word derived ae 
the same Arabic verbal root is the participle, * *Mus- 
lim,” or in the more common form, ‘ ‘Moslem,” which 






gubmit”? (22 : 77; 33:35; 49:14). 

7 = "The religious ideals of a supreme ruler as exercising 
absolute authority and of a devout religionist as yield- 
ing humble submission have naturally tended toward 
an autocratic form of government. Moslems in the 
course of their history have set up some notable domin- 
ions in various countries. However, at the present 
time, nowhere in the world is there a notably success- 
ful self-governing national administration which has 


been started by Moslems. The largest and most. 


flourishing group is the 68,000,000 in India. 


2. The Life of the Founder, Muhammad (570-632 
A. D.). pean 


The sources of information are partly in the.Kazan 
and partly in several early Arabic “Lives”’ and tradi- 
tions. 


1The reference numbers in this chapter are for the chapters and verses of the 
Koran as indicated in Rodwell’s translation. Unfortunately the translation by 
Palmer in the “‘ Sacred Books of the East,’ gives numbers only to every fifth verse 
The numbering of the verses sometimes differs slightly from the translations by Ali 
and Fadl (see p. 292). 


used as_a technical term to. designate‘ ‘those “who 1a 


214 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 
(1) An Ordinary Arab (Age 1-35). 


~ Mubammad was born in Mecca, which was the most 
important city in Arabia, and the centre of animism 
and idolatry.“ Like the other members of the Koreish 
tribe to which he belonged, he followed the business of 
shepherding and trading. He travelled on his mer- 
cantile operations to Syria and Palestine, where he 
mingled with Jews and Christians. 


(2) Seeking Religious Light (Age 35-40). 

An incident in the temple at Mecca, whereby he set- 
tled a quarrel between three sheikhs, prompted the idea 
that he might be a great religious leader of his people, 
who then were sadly distraught by feuds (Muir, “Life 
of Mohammad,” 27-30). He was dissatisfied with the 
existing moral and social conditions. He learned some- 
thing of monotheism from Jews and Christians. The 
first chapter in the Koran, the “Fatihah,”’ which is the 
model prayer repeated by faithful Moslems thirty-two 
times each day, “contains perhaps the germ of [his] 
frequent prayer at this early period” of groping (Muir, 
“Life,” 38). 

(3) Visions and Unsuccessful Preaching (Age 40-52). 

In a period of mental depression Muhammad sud- 
denly felt himself appointed to go forth and preach a 
religion of one absolute God, Creator, Potentate, and 
Judge of the world. apter ninety-six in the Koran 

\ is usually @onsidered as containing his first vision and 
\ abbot unent as a het of Allah. For twelve years 
he continued to have visions. His preaching of mono-’ 
theism and future judgment and his denunciation of 


idolatry and infanticide won only slight success either 
in Mecca or in the neighboring city of Taif. 


(4) The Flight or Migration, Hegira (Age 52). 


MUHAMMADANISM 215 





With one sole companion Muhammad fled for his 
i life away from his native city. Hiding in a cave three 
| miles north of Mecca, he experienced a narrow escape 
\ from his pursuers. 


God assisted him formerly, when the unbelievers drove him forth, 
in company with a second only, when they two were in the cave, 
when the Prophet said to his companion, ‘‘Be not distressed ! 
Verily, God is with us!”” And God sent down His tranquillity 
upon him, and strengthened him with hosts ye saw not. (9: 40.) 


That year, 622 A. D., which marks the lowest point 
in the personal fortunes of Muhammad, and also the 
beginnings of his remarkable success, has been adopted 
as the starting-point of the Muhammadan calendar— 
‘in Latin “Anno Hegire,” regularly abbreviated to 


PASH? 


(5) Growing Theocracy at Medina (Age 52-60). 
At the most important city in northern Arabia Mu- 
_hammad set up the rule of Allah, with himself as the 


immediate dictator upon the basis of the sixfold Pledge 
of Akaba. 


We will not worship any but the one God. “We will not steal. 
s Neither will we commit adultery. Nor kill our children. We 
will not slander in any wise. Nor will we disobey the Prophet 

in anything that is right. (Muir, “Life,” 118.) 
| He built a mosque for daily prayers and for the 
eekly congregation worship every Friday (62:9). He 
drilled his followers in devotions, religious education, 
and zealous aggressiveness. The ardent prophet of a 
God of power found his own power and his followers 
increasing. ‘To his previous preaching propaganda he 
added an entirely new method of military campaigning. 
He acknowledged that only the help of Allah enabled 
him to win against overwhelming foes the battle of 
Bedr (3: 11; 8 : 41-46), and also the battle of the Ditch 


216 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


(39:9-11). Other noticeable changes took place in 
his policy and in his own manner of life during this 
period, when he was becoming powerful and indepen- 
dent as a religious and warring leader. The qiblah, or 
“facing’’ in prayer, which formerly had been toward 
Jerusalem, he changed toward the Arabian centre, 
Mecca (2: 142-144). The fast which formerly had 
been observed on the Jewish Day of Atonement was 
changed to a new distinctly Muhammadan fast, cover- 
ing the month of Ramadan, or Ramzan (2: 179-183). 
His former policy of general friendliness toward the 
Jews was changed to persecution and killing. After 
the death of his first wife he took unto himself an in- 
creasing number of wives, even eleven at once. 


(6) Absolute Sovereignty at Mecca (Age 60-62). 


Mecca capitulated, and thenceforth Muhammad ex- 
ercised political sovereignty over all Arabia. He de- 
termined to abolish idolatry, and to reduce Judaism 
and Christianity to a position of dependence (9 : 29-30; 
Muir, “Life,” 408-409, 453-454). He had sent em- 
bassies to Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Abyssinian 
kings, demanding their acceptance of his faith. He 
saw “men entering the religion of Allah by troops”’ 
(110: 2). He died after a short fever in the arms of 
Aisha, the favorite wife in his harem. et last words 
were a prayer. 


Lord, grant me pardon! Join me to the companionship on high! 
Eternity in Paradise! Pardon! The blessed companionship 
on high! (Muir, “Life,” 495.) 
3. The Character of Muhammad. 
(1) Certain Admirable Characteristics. 
He was‘a_ man of unquestionable religious experi- 


ence. He was transformed by a compelling persona! 


rr 


es 


MUHAMMADANISM Q17 


conviction of an omnipotent God from an ordinary 

_ business man into a flaming prophet of religion. Him- 
self a man of prayer, he enjoined his followers also to 
pray unto the Almighty; ¢ and they have been wonder- 
fully faithful in this respect. 


Muhammad was a man of utter devoti 
ligious ideal as he conceived it. He risked his life re- 


peatedly for his religion. And his followers have con- 
tinued absolutely confident in the controlling power of 


God. 


My sole help is in God. In Him do I trust, and to Him do I 
turnme. (11: 90.) 

Trust i Allah. And Allah is sufficient as a protector. (4:83; 
33 : 3. 

We created man, and We know what his soul whispers; for We 
are nigher to him than his jugular vein. (50:15; SBE, 9: 
242-243.) 


Muhammad was an attractive leader and an efficient 
organizer. He succeeded in uniting the various war- 
ring Arab tribes on a new religious basis. And his fol- 
lowers have continued to be bound together closely by 
their religion. 


tee eevee is nearer of kin to the believers than themselves. 

33:6 

Verily, those who have believed and fled their homes and spent 
their substance for the cause of God, and they who have taken 
in the Prophet and been helpful to him, shall be near of kin the 
one to the other. (8:73; Rodwell, 381.) 


(2) Certain Reprehensible Characteristics. 

Muhammad was vindictive in certain relations, al- 
though he was also sometimes kind. He revenged him- 
self upon the Jews, upon his own fellow townsmen, the 
Meccans, and even upon his fellow tribesmen, the Ko- 
reish, when each of these three groups refused to accept 
his leadership. 


218 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Muhammad was a domineering, warring autocrat. 
He prescribed war, and advocated violence toward non- 
Moslems. 
Prescribed for you is fighting. (2: 212; SBE, 6:31.) 
Fight them then, that there should be no sedition, and that the 
religion may be wholly God’s. (8:40; SBE, 6: 167.) 

Fight those who believe not in God . . . until they pay the tribute 
by their hands, and be as little ones. (9: 29; SBE, 6 : 176-177.) 

Verily, God loves those who fight in His cause. (61:4; SBE, 
9 : 281.) 

Fight strenuously against the misbelievers and hypocrites, and 
be stern toward them. (66:9; SBE, 9: 292.) 


Muhammad’s behavior with his numerous wives 
caused trouble more than once (SBE, 6: xxix; 9 : 290- 
291; Muir, “Life,” 290-291, 426-428). It all seems 
quite justifiable to his followers, even at the present 
time (Ali, “Holy Quran,”’ 199-200, 1090-1092). Cer- 
tainly the sacred scriptures of no other religion intimate 
that the undesirable wives of the founder might be 
divorced with the prospect of his obtaining more and 
better wives through the help of God. 


It may be that his Lord, if he divorce you, will give him in ex- 
change wives better than you, Muslims, believers, devout, re- 
pentant, worshipping, given to fasting,—such as have known 
men, and virgins too! (SBE, 66:5; SBE, 9: 291.) 


He married Zainab, the divorced wife of an adopted 
son, Zaid; and justified his action by a special dispen- 
sation revealed to him from Allah: 

that it might not be a crime in the faithful to marry the wives 
of their adopted sons, when they have settled the affair concern- 
ing them. And the behest of God is to perform. No blame 


attacheth to the Prophet where God hath given him a permis- 
sion. (33: 37-38; Rodwell, 438.) 


He had set four_as the limit on the number of wives 
for Moslems (4:3). Yet this limit was removed later 
for him alone by a special dispensation. 


MUHAMMADANISM 219 


O Prophet, We allow thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, 
and the slaves whom thy right hand possesseth out of the booty 
which God hath granted thee, and the daughters of thy uncle, 
and of thy paternal and maternal aunts who fled with thee to 
Medina, and any believing woman who has given herself up to 
the Prophet, if the Prophet desired to wed her—a privilege for 
thee above the rest of the faithful. (83:49; similarly verse 51; 
Rodwell, 439.) 


) 
ha The Veneration of Muhammad. 

The Koran contains many passages which express a 
rather humble estimate of himself. In the early part 
of his career he presented himself more than a dozen 
times as simply a mortal man, one of the common folk, 
who had been sent by God as a warner. 


Muhammad is no more than an apostle. (3: 138.) 

A man from amongst yourselves, to warn you, and that ye may 
fear. (7: 61.) 

I am only the plain-spoken warner. (15:89; Rodwell, 116.) 

Similarly also 5: 22; 10 : 2; 17: 95; 18 : 110; 22 : 48; 25 : 58; 27 : 94; 
38 : 3, 65, 70; 46:8, 30-32; 51: 50-51; 67 : 26; '79 : 45. 


In two verses he is characterized as “‘the illiterate 
Prophet,’’ even though an apostle from Allah (7 : 156, 
158). At least five times he is directed to ask for for- 
giveness from God (4: 106; 40:57; 47:21; 48:2; 110: 
3). Muhammad explicitly theatinat miracle-working 
power, ‘even though he was challenged to give some 
sign that he really was a prophet and not merely an 
ordinary man (6: 109; 17 : 92-98; 21: 3, 5, 10; 29 : 49). 

Yet in a still larger number of verses Muhammad is 
closely associated with Allah, so that obedience to the 
Prophet is part of submission to God (3 : 28-29; 4: 17— 
18, 62, 82; 9 : 1-16, 66, 72, 75, 81, 91; 24 : 46-62; 33 : 12, 
22, 29, 33, 36; 49:1, 15; 57 : 7-28). 

The later estimate of Muhammad is that he was 
superhuman. Mirkhond’s “Life,” written in the fif- 


220 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


teenth century, contains fifty pages of miracles attrib- 
uted to him. 


Muhammad made no claim to pre-existence; and the strictly ortho- 
dox Moslems deny his pre-existence, his power of intercession, 
and that his person and tomb should be reverenced. But the 
Sunnis as well as the Shiahs are accepting traditions that de- 
clare his pre-existence even before the creation of the world 
in the form of the “light of Muhammad.” ... The sinless- 
ness of Muhammad is proclaimed, and pronunciation of his‘ 
name is vested with delivering power and saving grace. (J. L. 
Barton, “‘Christian Approach to Islam,”’ 130; similarly, D. B. 
Macdonald, “Aspects of Islam,” 97-100; Andrae, “‘Die Person 
Muhammed’s,” 92-390.) 


5. The Sacred Scriptures of Islam, the Koran. 


Islam is unique among the religions of the world in 
that its sacred scriptures are avowedly the revelation 
of God to the founder. The main speaker in the Koran 
is Allah. Sometimes he is represented as simply speak- 
ing to Muhammad, and sometimes as bidding Muham- 
mad to speak as the mouthpiece of God. 

Yet the historic facts seem to be that Muhammad 
himself did not write one word of the Koran as the 
document has come down in its present form. About 
a year after his death, Abu Bekr, his successor, ordered 
a compilation of the teachings of the Prophet, which 
could be remembered accurately, or which otherwise 
had been preserved by devoted disciples. Eleven or 
twelve years after the death of Muhammad, on account 
of the variations and confusions which had arisen among 
the reported sayings of Muhammad, the third caliph, 
Othman, ordered a revision to be made, and all existing 
copies of the previous compilation to be destroyed. 
Thus the present text of the Koran is not the first edi- 
tion, but a second edition, which had been made in 
order “‘to stop the people before they should differ re- 
garding their scriptures, as did the Jews and Chris- 


MUHAMMADANISM 221 | 


tians’’ (Rodwell, “The Koran,” translated from the 
Arabic, 1; Muir, four-volume “Life,” vol. I, p. xiii). 

\ From the point of view of literary criticism, material 
from many sources had entered into the mind of Mu- 
hammad before he uttered these teachings. Some tra- 
ditional Arabic beliefs and folk-lore can be recognized | 
in the Koran. Some elements may have been originally 
Zoroastrian, for example, the devil, angels, the judg- 
ment-day, the resurrection. There are many refer- 
ences to persons and events of the Old Testament. 
Some rabbinical remnants from the Jewish Talmud 
may he identified.. There are many allusions to the 
New Testament evangel, “Injil,” and to Christianity, 
including at least eight references to the Messiah and 
twenty-five to Jesus Christ. Indeed, there is a curious 
resemblance between the meaning of the Greek word 
“Paraclete”? and the Arabic word “Ahmed,” which is 
a synonym for “Muhammad,” so that the founder 
of Christianity is represented as predicting, literally, 
the future founder of Islam (John 14 : 16; 16 :'7, 12-14). 


Jesus, the son of Mary, said : ““O children of Israel! Verily, Iam 
the apostle of God to you, verifying the law that was before 
me, and giving you glad tidings of an apostle who shall come 
after me, whose name shall be Ahmed.” (61:6; SBE, 9: 281; 
Rodwell, 405-406.) 


The structural arrangement of the Koran is in 114 
chapters, or “Suras,’’ totalling slightly less than the 
New Testament, and about one-quarter of the size of 
the Old Testament. ‘The first chapter contains a short 
opening prayer, the famous Fatiha. Thereafter the 
chapters are arranged simply according to their length. 
From the longest at the beginning, with 286 verses, they 
diminish down to the short chapters at the end, the 
shortest containing only three verses. Modern critical 
scholars believe that they have succeeded in identify- 


222 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


ing the suras, which were “‘revealed”’ in the successive. 
periods of Muhammad’s life—first at Mecca, then at 
Medina, and again at Mecca. MRodwell’s translation 
presents the Koran in this rearranged chronological 
order of chapters, which discloses the process of de- 
velopment in Muhammad’s own mind. 

Every one of the chapters, except the ninth, begins 
with a stereotyped formula: “In the name of Allah, 
the Compassionate, the-Merciful”—Bismi “Mahi ’rrah- 
mant ’rrahum. Many passages represent that the Ko- 
ran had been revealed by Allah direct to Muhammad, 
even in the Arabic language and without any discrepan- 
cies (4:84, 113; 12: 1-3; 13 : 36-37; 16: 104-105; 17: 
85-93; 18:1; 25:7; 38:28; 39:24, 28, 29; 46: 6-7; 
53: 4-12). More than a hundred passages in the 
Koran refer to the book, many of them extolling its 
excellences. The authority of the Koran is absolute 
for Moslems. Their theologians have propounded 
dogmas of plenary inspiration, verbal infallibility, and 
self-attesting truth. 


Yet none knoweth its interpretation, except Allah. (3:5.) 


Historically, the Koran has been the most influential 
book in all Arabic literature. Hardly an Arabic book 
of any importance has been written subsequently with- 
out making allusions to, or quoting from, the Koran. 
It is the chief text-book in the modern Muhammadan 
university of Al-Azhar at Cairo. 


6. The Conception of the Supreme Being, Allah. 
Monotheism_ is Muhammad’s pre-eminent religious 


message. >» Yet in “jn_referring | to himself / Allah always i 
represented as as using the plural number, “We PRS 


and “Our,” even as was done by the “Elohim” God 
in the early part of the Old Testament (Genesis 1 : 26), 


MUHAMMADANISM 223 


jas is still done in the official utterances of some mod- 
ern monarchs, and also in the literary device of edi- 
: torial we.” However, the. main.teaching of the 
|Koran is clear—that there exists one sole God, whose 


The historical origin of Muhammadan monotheism 
was threefold: partly in Muhammad’s own insight into 
an ultimate unity in the Supreme Being of the universe, 
partly in his learning this great idea directly from Jew- 
ish monotheism, and partly in his conscious reaction 
against the crude tritheism of the Syrian Christians ° 
whom he met. More than a dozen passages in the 
Koran protest against the preposterous proposition 
that the one Supreme Being could enter into any sort 
of sexual relationship with one woman, so that one 
Son of God would be begotten, or that the sovereign 
unity would be impaired by being split into thirds of 

a so-called divine Trinity (2:110; 4:169; 5: 76-77; | 
6: 100-102; 10:69; 17: 111; 18: 3-4; 19 : 36-39, 91- 
93; 21 : 19-33; 23 : 93; 37: 151-163; 39 : 2-8; 72: 3-4). 

The Koran contains some noble descriptions of the 
omnipotent and beneficent Creator, which are entirely 
acceptable to Jews or to Christians (2 : 27; 6: 95-100; 
14: 37; 46 : 32; 50:37; 55: 2-12). The finest descrip- 
tion of God in the Koran is the famous “Verse of the 
Throne,” or “Verse of Power,” which is frequently in- 
scribed in mosques (2 : 256). 

Seven important characteristics of Allah have been 
analyzed and classified in orthodox Muhammadan the- 


ology. 


Absolutely unitary, the main attribute repeatedly asserted (3: 1, 
4, 16; 6:101-102; 16: 1-3; 21:22; 25:1-2; 37:4-5; 73:9; 
112: 1-4); 

All-seeing (6: 59, 103; 18 : 25); 

All-hearing (2 : 257; 44: 5); 

All-speaking (18 : 109; 31: 26); 


224 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


All-knowing (: 27; 6: 58; 31: 22; 33: 54; 58: 7-8); 

All-willing, 2. e., inscrutably irresistible (6: 85; 18:88; 16:2, 93 
76): 51> 85: 16); 

All-powerful (2:19; 3: 159; 55: 16-17). 


Ninety-nine names of Allah are repeated with as 
many beads on the Muhammadan rosary. The 
_frequent, and the only.one.used_in.some-thirty of the 
early chapters of the Koran,-is “Lord”? (Rabb). Other 
-narmesfor-Allah which. occur in- the Koran-are:- The 
One, the Mighty, the Powerful, the King, the Over- 
comer, the Avenger, the Dominator, the Slayer, the 
Provider, the Compassionate, the Merciful, the For- 
giving. Allah is also represented as “Loving”’ (wadid). 
But the persons whom Allah loves are: 


“Those who do good”’ (2: 191). 

“Those who follow Muhammad”’ (3: 28). 
“Not the proud or boastful” (4: 40). 

“Those who believe and act aright”’ (19 : 96). 
“Those who fight in His cause”’ (61: 4). 


Muhammad’s main practical message about God 
was that He would punish the wicked and reward the 
good people. Allah is frequently lauded as gracious 
and forgiving toward the persons who submit to His 
sovereignty. Moral culpability in the character of 
Allah is repeatedly denied in the Koran (2: 24; 4: 44; 
28:14). But more frequently affirmed is the absolute 
arbitrariness of Allah. | 


He guides whomsoever He pleases. (2: 136; 22: 16; 24: 35, 455. 
98': 56; 42°: 12; 76: 31;) 


~~ Equally explicit are statements that Allah mislead 
certain people (13: 33; 14:32; 40:35, 36, 74; 61: 5)e. 
Indeed, numerous passages in the Koran state explic- 
itly and conjointly that Allah both guides and mis+ 
guides, both punishes and forgives, according to His 


MUHAMMADANISM 225 


own inscrutable, unquestionable good pleasure (3 : 124; 
B44; 62 39,125; 18°27; 14 3435 17: 99: 18: 16; 35-9; 
39 : 24; 74:34). On the whole, Allah is represented 
as a magnificent, opulent, irresistible World-Potentate 
«an Arab sheikh glorified and magnified to cosmic 

. 4oportions. 

‘Salvation, according to such a faith, is expressed 
explicitly. i in the simple word ‘which Muhammad used 
for ete this religion; “islam” (“submission ” to 


God). 


7.. The Essential Muhammadan Beliefs. 


Any intelligent Moslem can state with ease and 
definiteness his six main beliefs, as formulated in tra- 
ditional theology. 


(1) Belief in the One God, Allah. 


_ The first and foremost item in Islam_is monotheisnx 
This is taught repeatedly in the Koran, and forms the 
airst half of the Moslem creed. 


(2) Belief in Angels. 

They intercede with Allah for the forgiveness of men 
(40 : 7-97 42: 3). Fight: ae support ‘the Hirone “of 
Allah (69:17). i 
Gabriel is the archangel a. 91; 16:104; 53: 5, 6: 
66:4; 81:19). TAO Sis ea (2: 81). 
Jinn, genii, are a group of spirits midway between men 
and angels; they are both good and evil (11: 120; 72: 
_). Some of them have “submitted themselves,”’ and 

rereby have become Moslems (72: 13-14). One of 
ae jinn (18: 48) is the devil. He is designated in the 
Koran as “‘Shaitin,’ from the Hebrew “Satan,” also 
is “Iblis,” from the Greek “Diabolos.”’ This tempter 
.S'a very important personage in the Koran. He is 





226 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


accompanied by a group of especially rebellious spirits, 
“Shaiyatin,” devils. | 


(3) Beltef in the Koran. 


/ Allah has sent down various books (29 : 45; 42 : 14), 
‘among them the Hebrew Torah, ‘“Taurat,” Law, to. 
Moses; the Psalms, “‘Zabur,’ to David; the Evangel, 
“Tnjil,” to Jesus; and lastly the Koran to Muhammad. 


_(4) Belief in the Prophets of Allah. 


- Twenty-eight such are named in the Koran. 
Twenty-two of them are from the Old Testament, in- 


», cluding Adam, Enoch, Methusaleh, Noah, Abraham, 


| 
| 
\ 


Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, Solomon, 
Elijah, Elisha, and Jonah. There are three from the 
New Testament—dZechariah, John the Baptist, and 


\ Jesus. Among the Muhammadan prophets outside of 


‘the Bible is Alexander the Great. Muhammad is the 
last and greatest of the prophets. He has been pre- 
‘pared for, and attested by, all the preceding prophets. 


(5) Belief in Judgment, Paradise, and Hell. 


At the end of the world there will be a resurrection 
of all the dead on “the day of coming forth” (50: 41). 


The trumpet shall be blown; and behold, from their graves unto 
their Lord shall they slip out. (86: 51.) 


The great judgment-day of Allah and the unity of 
God are the two messages of Muhammad from the be- 
ginning to the end of his preaching. ‘The two earliest 
“revelations,” as now classified in a chronological order 
of the preachments of Muhammad, contain this mes- 
sage of the judgment-day to come (74: 8-10; 96:8). 
In more than a score of passages Muhammad, like some 
of the Hebrew prophets, delivered thunderous warn- 


MUHAMMADANISM 227 


ings of doomsday impending with decisive rewards and 
punishments. Concrete pictures are presented of the 
balance scales which will be used to weigh the good and 
evil deeds of each soul, even to the weight of a grain of 

mustard seed (7 : 5-8; 21: 48; 23 : 103-105; 101 : 6-8). 


Paradise, with andant pleasures for the senses, is 


pictured awaiting the pious believers in Allah. More 
than a score of passages, almost without exception, re- 
fer to gardens and flowing rivers, luxurious food and 
ease, and varied sensuous pleasures. 


Verily, the pious shall be in gardens and pleasure, enjoying what 
their Lord has given them; for their Lord will save them from 
the torment of hell. “‘Eat and drmk with good digestion, for 
that which ye have done,” reclining on couches in rows. And 
We will wed them to large-eyed maids. ... And We will ex- 
tend to them fruit and flesh such as they like. (52: 17-22; 
SBE, 9 : 249.) 

In gardens of pleasure, . . . and gold-weft couches... . Around 
them shall go eternal youths, with goblets and ewers and a cup 
of flowing wine. No headaches shall they feel therefrom, nor 
shall their wits be dimmed! And fruits such as they deem the 
best, and flesh of fowl as they desire, and bright and large-eyed 
maids like hidden pearls, a reward for that which they have 
done. (56: 12-23; SBE, 9: 263.) 


Hell for the wicked unbelievers is presented repeat- 


edly w with vivid gruesome pictures.~ 


Tn hell shall they broil, and an ill resting-place shall it be. (14 : 34.) 

Verily, We have prepared for the evil-doers a fire, sheets of which 
shall encompass them. And if they cry for help, they shall be 
helped with water like molten brass, which shall roast their faces. 
(18 : 28; SBE, 9: 17.) 

A sinner—verily for him is hell. He shall not die therein, and he 
shall not live. (20:76; SBE, 9:39.) 


(6) Belief in the Dwine Decrees. ae 
Everything. 1 is predestined by Allah’s appointment, , | 


even I men’s belief and unbelief (16538). 


It is not for any soul to ifs save » by God’s permission, written abet 
for an appointed time. (3: 139; SBE,;:5: 63.) 


228 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Naught shall befall us, save what God has written down for us. — 
(9:51; SBE, 6: 180.) 

Ye did not slay them, but it was God who slew them. Nor didst — 
thou shoot, when thou didst shoot, but God did shoot. (8:17; — 
SBE, 9: 165.) 


8. The Essential Muhammadan Duties. 
These are called “the Ki slam.” 


(1) Repetition of the Creed. ry 

Every Moslem is required to repeat the Confession 
of Faith, or Watchword, Kalimah, every day in the 
original Arabic. 





There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Prophet of 


Allah. 


This formula is not to be found in the Koran in this 
- form, but its two parts recur frequently, for example, 
in 47:21 and 48:29. Simply the repetition of this 
creed is accepted as a test of conversion to Islam. 


(2) Prayer. 

The Koran frequently enjoins the duty of praying. 
The call to prayer may be heard from the minaret of 
every mosque five times every day. The Koran re- 
quires prayer at three stated times—daybreak, noon, 
and night (11:116; 17:80-81; 20:130; 30: 16-17; 
50: 38-39). It must always be directed toward the 
Sacred Mosque at Mecca: 


Wherever ye be. (2: 139.) 

**Come not to prayer when ye are drunken, but wait till ye can un- 
derstand what ye utter; nor when ye are polluted,” even by the 
touch of a woman. (4: 46.) 


(3) A lmsgwing, 


This is a duty explicitly enjoined upon faithful Mos- 
lems (2:40; 64:16; 98:4). Conversion to Islam 
definitely includes the paying of this impost (9: 5, 11). 






MUHAMMADANISM 229 


When ye have taken any booty, a fifth part belongeth to Allah 
and to the Apostle and to the near of kin and to orphans and 
_ to the poor and to the wayfarer. (8: 42.) 


(4) Fasting During the Days of the Month of Ramadan. 


O believers, a fast is prescribed for you . . . the month of Rama- 
dan. ... As soon as any of you observeth the moon, let him 
set about the fast... . Eat and drink}until ye can discern a 
white thread from a black thread by the daybreak. Then fast 
strictly till night. (2: 179-183; Rodweil, 357.) 


(5) The Pilgrimage to Mecca (Haj). 

Every Moslem is required once in his lifetime to go 
to Mecca, to circumambulate the Sacred Mosque, and 
to kiss the Kaaba Black Stone seven times. However, 
in case of inability a Moslem may send a substitute on 
this sacred duty. The pilgrimage is to be performed 
within certain lunar months, and according to certain 
other details (2: 185, 193-199). 


And proclaim among men the pilgrimage. Let them come on 
foot and on every slim camel. (22: 28.) 

There is due to God from man a pilgrimage unto the House for 
whosoever can find his way there. (3: 91.) 


It is reported that since the World War no Turkish 
Moslem has gone to Arabia for this sacred Haj. 


9g. The History of Islam. 

Muhammad died without leaving a son or any ap- 
pointed “‘successor.”” ‘Then for twenty-eight years the 
leadership was maintained in turn by four valiant per- 
sonal comrades of the Prophet: Abu Bekr, who ordered 
the collecting of Muhammad’s sayings; Omar, who 
conquered Syria and Persia; Othman, who ordered a 
revision of the Koran and the insertion of the vowel- 
points into the consonantal text; and Ali, Muham- 
mad’s son-in-law, with whose assassination Islam be- 


230 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


came permanently divided into sects. Then there 
arose a series of different caliphates, some of them 
simultaneous, and warring against each other. 


(1) Political Divisions in Islam. 

The Omayyad Caliphate (660-750 A. D.) at Damas- 
cus started the method of an hereditary succession, 
and extended Islam forcefully over all north Africa and 
Spain. The westward aggression of Islam continued 
rapidly far into Europe until it was stopped by Charles 
Martel, at the battle of Tours, or Poitiers, in France 
in 732 A. D., exactly one hundred years after the death 
of Muhammad. 

The Abbaside Caliphate (750-1258 A. D.) traced it- 
self back to Abul Abbas, an uncle of Muhammad. It 
included the most famous of all the Moslem caliphs, 
Harun-al-Raschid, whose capital was at Baghdad. 

A Spanish caliphate held sway at Cordova (755-— 
1236 A. D.), and a Moorish caliphate at Granada (1238- 
1492 A. D.). 

The Fatimite Caliphate (910-1171 A.D.) ruled 
Egypt and north Africa. 

The caliphate of the Ottoman Turks began its power 
in 1299 A.D. It captured Constantinople in 1453 
A. D. and Egypt in 1517 A. D. This has continued 
as the chief Moslem power for about 600 years. In 
1922 the sultan, at Constantinople, was deposed by 
the Turkish National Assembly, at Angora. 


(2) Sectarian Divisions in Islam. 


Along with the external political separations, there 
have arisen within Islam certain notably distinct types 
of religious experience and of theological formulas. 

The Sunni sect constitutes the main body of Mos- 
lems. They are pre-eminently the traditionalists. 


MUHAMMADANISM 231 


| They insist upon the Sunna (or Way), which has come 
}down continuously from the founder. The Turkish- 
Moslems are mostly Sunnis. | 

The Shia-sect split off early in the history of Islam. 
They contend that the first really legitimate ___suc- 
cessor’’ was Ali, who, as being personally in the family 
of Muhammad, was the one to continue the true suc- 
cession from Muhammad. Ali and both of his sons, 
Hasan and Husein, were religious martyrs, and have 
been venerated by the Shia Moslems. The various 
subdivisions of Shia Moslems differ among themselves 
concerning the number of Imams, or divinely appointed 
leaders, and also concerning the identity of the latest 
Mahdi, or Guided One. The Shia Moslems are located 
chiefly in Persia and Africa. ‘Their tendency is toward 
liberalism, mysticism, even pantheism. They have 
been much influenced by other systems, especially Zoro- 
astrianism. 

The Qufi sect of Moslems, who are so named from 
their original clothing of suf, or coarse wool, exhibit 
still another religious trait. The idea of the Shias, 
that the deity could in any approximate way become 
man, would have been abhorrent to the austere tran- 
scendentalism of Muhammad, although he did experi- 
ence some of the mystics’ sense of divine rapture, or of 
possession by the Divine. However, this new idea of 

incarnation has been still further developed by the 
Sufis. They are characterized by the pantheistic ten- 
dency that even ordinary men may almost become 
divine by a process of asceticism and mysticism. The 
Sufi Moslems have been located mostly in Persia and 
India. The most famous Sfi was the Persian mys- 
tic Jalal-ud-Din Rumi (1207-1273 A. D.). The most 
famous religionist, revivalist, and author in the whole 
history of Islam was Al-Ghazali. who died in 1111 A. D. 





232 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


At the present time among Moslems there exist some 
seventy-two distinct divisions, sects, or denominations. 
These exhibit a tendency which is in marked contrast 
with the warnings in the Koran with regard to the 
heinousness of sects (firgah). 


Take tight hold of Allah’s rope all together. And do not part 
in sects. (3: 98.) 

Be not like those who parted in sects and disagreed, after there 
came to them manifest signs. (6: 160.) 

Be steadfast in religion, and not part into sects therein. (42: 11.) 


10. Elements of Strength in Islam. 


Its theory of one supreme deity, versus idolatry. 

Its confidence in a really sovereign world ruler. 

Its teaching that God is also merciful and compas- 
sionate. 

Its principle of utter devotion to the will of God. 

Its theory of an unescapable, just judgment-day. 

Its insistence upon a continuous life of prayer. 

A certain powerful example in its enthusiastic 
founder. 

Its world-wide outlook. 

A certain strong historic missionary aggressiveness. 

A certain strong unity among believers, despite sects. 


Iz. Elements of Weakness in Islam. 


The arbitrariness of its deity. 

Its reliance upon the method of force. 

Its excessive appeals to motives of fear and reward. 

Its belief in fatalism (kismet). 

Its excessively sensuous future—Paradise and Hell. 

Its low estimate of woman. 

Its lack of a great sociil programme for the salva- 
tion of the world. 

Its inconsistent animism: jinn, devils, Kaaba stone, 
repetitious prayers. 


MUHAMMADANISM 233 


Certain pathetic weaknesses I in the founder’s moral 
character. 

Its theory of non-progress; Mahara the last of 
the prophets, “the Seal of the prophets” (33 : 40). 


| 


yond 


XIl 
CHRISTIANITY 


Tue RELIGION OF THE LOVE OF Gop AND LOVE 
oF Man As REVEALED IN JESUS CHRIST 


1. Introduction: Among the World’s Living Religions. 


Christianity is one of nine religions, started by an 

historic leader of great spiritual insight, whose teach- 
ings have created a permanent following. Only two, 
Hinduism and Shinto, have no personal founder. 
_ Christianity is one of four religions which sprang, 
not merely from a remarkable individual, but also 
from centuries of religious experience under an organ- 
ized religion. Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism are the 
other religions in this class of offshoots. But Chris- 
tianity is unique in that it adopted into its own canon 
the sacred scriptures of the antecedent religion, while 
the Vedas are contemned in the sacred scriptures of 
the three religions which sprang from Hinduism. 

Christianity is like all the other living religions in 


_ the fact that it originated in Asia. Yet Christianity 


is unique in the fact that its historic development and 
influence have been mostly in the West. And the 
peoples of the West have derived their ideals of justice, 
freedom, opportunity, co-operation, and progress from 
no other religion than that of Jesus Christ. 

Finally, Christianity is unique in the fact that its 
adherents, along with its opponents and much more 
than its opponents, feel keenly that the ideals of Jesus 
Christ are still far from being fully realized. 

234 


CHRISTIANITY 235 


2. Its Sacred Scriptures. 


The Christian scriptures are contained in the Bible. 
This book is the primary source of information con- 
cerning the founder and the origin of the Christian 
Church. It is the authoritative compendium of the 
principles of Christianity. And it is the most valu- 
able literary help for the maintenance of a Christian 
life. 

It comprises the thirty-nine books of the Old Testa- 
ment, which were the canonical scriptures of Judaism, 
written chiefly in Hebrew during many centuries, to- 
gether with the twenty-seven books of the New Testa- 
ment in Greek, which were written during the first cen- 
tury of the Christian Church. The distinctively Chris- 
tian. part of the Bible is the New Testament, which 
records the life and teachings of the founder, and the 
thoughts and experiences of his early disciples. The 
Bible of the Greek and Latin Churches contains fourteen 
other books appended to the Old Testament, known as 
the Apocrypha; they are regarded by those churches 
as canonical, but not so by most Protestants. The 
combination of all these writings into one volume was 
already in the making before 200 A.D. Copies of the 
whole Bible were made by order of Constantine about 
825 A. D. 

A study of the Christian scriptures will show that 
‘the Bible is a collection of writings which are quite 
diverse, yet of great value as a unit. The diversity is 
strikingly set forth in the first book of the New Tes- 
tament (Matthew 5: 17-48), where Jesus distinctly su- 
perseded teachings of the Old Testament in six specific 
instances, and yet also said that his purpose was “not 
to destroy, but to fulfil.’ The unity is clear when the 
Bible is viewed as the record of a long historical growth 
in the comprehension of God and of man and of the 


236 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


universe, perfected through the life and teaching of 
Jesus Christ. , 

The authority of the Bible is supreme above all: 
other books because it presents most fully the saving 
truths of religion. Its influence has exceeded that of 
any volume ever written in human history. In 1922 it 
had been translated, in whole or in part, into 550 lan- 
guages. Its impression upon human civilization has 
been profound, although falling far short as yet of the 
full purpose of Jesus Christ. Yet one may fairly say 
that the scriptures of Christianity tower above all other 
scriptures in influence, in attractiveness, and in effect 
on character. 


3. The Life of the Founder, Jesus Christ (4 B. C.- 
29 A. D.). 

Our knowledge of the life of Jesus, the founder of 
Christianity, is derived from four short interpretations, 
called “Gospels,” and from a few other references to 
him in the New Testament. On the basis of this in- 
formation, relatively so scanty, yet so momentous, 
more books have been published about Jesus Christ 
than about any other person who has ever lived. 


(1) His Early Infe. 

Christian tradition in two of the Gospels (Matthew 
and Luke) affirms the virginity of his mother, and so 
his supernatural birth. However, during his lifetime 
he was recognized as the son of Joseph and Mary. He 
was born in Bethlehem of Judea, and brought up in 
Nazareth of Galilee. He was a typical Jewish child. 
His parents complied in every respect with character- 
istic Jewish customs at the time of his birth and while 
he was growing up. That he was an extraordinary 
youth is the implication of the graphic narrative in the 


CHRISTIANITY 237, 










Jewish temple at Jerusalem (Luke 2: 41-51). Living 
2 normal life in a humble family, he drew upon the best 
lavailable instruction and experience of his day. His 
jmanhood life revealed the breadth and depth of his 
culture. 


(2) The Crisis in Which He Became a Leader. 


When Jesus was about thirty years old, John the 
\Baptist, who according to Luke was his cousin, con- 
{ducted on the banks of the Jordan a moral and religious 
revival which challenged the hearts of his dejected 
countrymen. The new preacher proclaimed: 


Repent ye, for the Kingdom of Heavenis athand. (Matthew 3:1.) 


To this appeal Jesus responded, and joined the reform 
movement. At the moment of baptism, he received a 
vivid conviction that God, his loving heavenly Father, 
was calling him. He accepted the call, and in retire- 
ment he determined that he would realize the fulness 
of sonship to God neither through self-benefiting nor 
through self-advertising, nor by a lowering of ideals. 
He found the signal for his own activity as a leader 
when John was cast into prison. 


(3) His Public Ministry. 

The common people heard the message of Jesus 
gladly. They looked upon him as a prophet, and at 
first flocked to hear him. But the trained leaders of 
the Jewish Law saw in him a revolutionary, and re- 
garded his teachings as dangerous. ‘They did not in- 
terfere with his ministry at the outset. But when they 
saw that their authority would be set aside by the way 
in which he was preaching and teaching and acting, 
they became his bitter enemies. He then chose twelve 
disciples, whom he carefully trained to understand his 


238 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


mission, and to spread it abroad. It is clear, however, | 
that the people as a whole never accepted him as the 
expected Jewish Messiah; they were looking for one 
quite different. Even the people of his own home 
town rejected him, and his own family was slow to 
accept his claims. The best description of his work 
was given in later years by one of his most aggressive 
disciples: 

Jesus of Nazareth, how that God anointed him with the Holy 


Spirit and with power, who went about doing good, and healing 
all that were oppressed of the devil. (Acts 10: 38.) 


He announced as his own the programme of a He- 
brew prophet. 


The Lord anointed me to preach good tidings to the poor. He 
hath sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering 
of sight to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised, to 
proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord. (Luke 4: 18-19; 
Isaiah 61 : 1-2.) 


Eventually the priestly authorities at Jerusalem ar- 
rested Jesus. He was condemned to death by the 
supreme Jewish court, because he had admitted that 
he was the Christ, the Son of God. The Roman gov-— 
ernor, who had to confirm the conviction, found no 
fault in him, yet permitted his crucifixion. Thus closed 
a remarkable ministry, the characteristic features of 
which may be mentioned. 


(4) Methods in His Public Ministry. 


As a teacher both the method ‘and the content of his 
instruction were remarkable. The First Gospel im- 
pressively exhibits him in that capacity by grouping 
his classified sayings, and thus indicating their range 
and value. The Sermon on the Mount is an example. 
It compared the Christian view-point with that of the 


CHRISTIANITY 239 





‘good Jew, declaring it to be far more searching, more 
/vital, and more godlike. The parables of Jesus furnish 
jan even more striking example of his skill. By these 
jshort stories from life, or illustrations from nature, 
jJesus habitually conveyed profound religious lessons, 
lwhich went to the very heart of each of his hearers, 
setting forth, as they did, eternal principles of truth. 

As a preacher, Jesus took every opportunity to de- 
clare that the rule of God was at hand. But he empha- 
sized it to be a spiritual kingdom in the heart, achieved 
through righteousness and friendliness. This concep- 
tion was very different from that which filled the mind 
of most of his hearers, who therefore thought him a 
visionary or an iconoclast. 

As a healer, Jesus worked many wondrous cures. He 
healed many sick people, and restored to sanity ab- 
normal personalities who, according to the ideas of 
the day, were possessed or tormented by evil spirits. 
These impressive deeds were done regularly from com- 
passion. Sometimes they were accompanied by the 
explicit command to go and live a better life, as moral 
character was the higher objective which he had in 
view. ‘These deeds were “signs” of the power and 
help of God. Jesus did them not simply to accredit 
himself, but as the spontaneous expression of his spirit 
of love. 


(5) The Extraordinary Conclusion of His Infe. 


On the apprehension of Jesus by the soldiers, all his 
disciples forsook him and fled. Apparently some of 
them gave up all hope, and went home. His tomb was 
sealed, yet two days later was found empty. 


He is not here, but is risen. (Mark 16:6.) 
Whom God raised up, having loosed the pangs of death; because 
it was not possible that he should be holden of it. (Acts 2: 24.) 


240 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Even his own disciples found it hard to believe thai 
he had risen. But through personal intercourse they) 
became convinced that he was alive again. His lasi 
words were a benediction, with an assurance of his 
perpetual spiritual presence, and with a command tc; 
bear witnesses of him and of his gospel throughout the 
world. ‘Then Jesus seemed to his disciples to ascenc 
into heaven; and they were moved to worship. 

And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he was parted from 
them, and was carried up into heaven. And they worshippec 
him, and returned to Jerusalem with great joy. (Luke 24. 

Kat We went forth and preached everywhere, the Lord working 


with them and confirming the word by the signs that followed, 
(Mark 16: 20.) 


4. The Character of Jesus Christ. 


The most distinctive single feature of Christianity is 
the character of the founder. That is the chief con- 
tribution which Christianity offers to any individual 
and to the world at large to-day. 

The many-sided character of Jesus Christ is at once 
luminous, comprehensive, inspiring, commanding. It 
needs to be studied from many points of view. The 
most important approach is from the primary data con- 
tained in the sacred scriptures of Christianity. One 
must include also, as in the case of the founders of other 
religions, his own estimate of himself. 





(1) Evidences of the Humanity of Jesus, as sharing 
variously in the experiences of normal human beings, 
stand on every page of the four Gospels. 

The child grew and waxed strong, filled with wisdom; and the grace 

of God was upon him. (Luke 2: 40.) 


And Jesus advanced in wisdom and stature, and in favor with 
God and men. (Luke 2: 52.) 


As a child he was eager in conversation, and especially 


CHRISTIANITY 241 


jnterested in religion (Luke 2:46-49). He became 
wearied with journeying. More than once he is re- 
iported as being thirsty. He drank and ate and slept. 
More than once he wept. He was repeatedly amazed 
and surprised, sad and troubled. He was limited in 
knowledge and in power. He enjoyed human com- 
panionship, and appreciated personal attentions. He 
was fond of his country, and lamented over its condi- 
tion. He appreciated various aspects of nature, such 
as flowers, grass, birds, and signs of the weather. In 
six passages in the New Testament he is reported as 
having been tempted. In an agony he prayed, and 
preat drops of sweat fell to the ground. In twenty- 
six passages he is reported as having prayed to God; 
and he received response “from heaven, strengthening 
him” (Luke 22:43). There are more than a dozen 
verses which report him as seeking the will of God. 
He was consciously subordinate to God as his Father. 


The Father is greater than I. (John 14: 28.) 


The designation which he most frequently used for 
himself was “son of man.” This phrase is reported in 
at least seventy passages, which occur in all of the four 
Gospels. Its exact and full significance has been vari- 
ously interpreted by scholars. But by it perhaps Jesus 
emphasized his own relation to humanity, that he felt 
himself to be a typical human being, or an ideal human 
being. 

However, the foregoing experiences, which any and 
avery human being might share with Jesus, were com- 
oined with other extraordinary aspects of consciousness 
and purpose. ‘These indicate such a relationship to 
God that the Christian Church has regularly called him 
livine. 







(2) Evidences of an Especially Close Relationship 


242 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


uith God in Service to Humanity are also numerous i 
the records of the life of Jesus. In thirty-seven verse: 
he speaks of himself as sent by God. In more thar 
thirty verses he is represented as consciously fulfilling 
the Old Testament, yet also consciously supersediiy 
phases of the antecedent religion. He was a diligs;;; 
coworker with God (John 5:17-47; 6: 38-40; 9: 4, 
He predicted that “this gospel shal! b2 preached in the 
whole world”’ (Matthew 26:13; Mark 14:9). In giv. 
ing his life servicefully to men, he presented himself 
as an example for all his followers (Matthew 20: 28: 
Mark 10: 43). 

He presented himself as a savior of men in a variety 
of intimate relations both with men and with God. 
for example, as the door of salvation (John 10:9), g 
the good shepherd caring for his sheep with self-sacrj 
ficing service (John 10:10), as the indispensable vine 
of which his disciples are the fruit-bearing branches 
(John 15: 1-6), as the resurrection and the life (Joh: 
11 : 25), as the way, the truth and the life (John 14 : 6) 
as the bread of life (John 6:35, 48), as the life-giviny, 
bread of God (John 6: 33), as an adequate represen- 
tative of God (Matthew 11 : 27; 26 : 53; John 8 : 16, 19 
12: 44-45; 13:3; 14:6, 7, 9), as one with God k, 
Father. He declared that the words which he utter: 
were more enduring than heaven and earth, and tk; 
he himself would be the judge of the world (Matth; 
16:27; 24:35; Mark 8): 88; 18 - S40 inkemesen 
Re ordincien: in a dozen nlaces he demanded absoljj, 
loyalty to himself. In each of the synoptic Gospelsj; 
indicated that he was “Son of God.” He challeng; 
any one to convict him of any sin (John 8:46). — 


5. The Veneration of Jesus Christ. 
His followers revere the founder of the Christian re- 


CHRISTIANITY 243 


\figion as being, among all the men who have ever lived, 
[the most worthy representative of God and also of 
(man. This superlative estimate is, of course, very 
‘different from that held by the religious leaders who 
“tt him to death, and also from that held by some of 
3 associates. The New Testament frankly records 
the opposing estimates in the historical narratives of 
“his life. ge be 
~ Some unfavorable estimates of Jesus were held by 
4some associates. Thus his own fellow townsmen re- 
‘garded him as an ordinary country carpenter, though 
rather inexplicable in certain respects; and on one oc- 
‘casion they almost assassinated him (Matthew 13 : 54— 
57; Mark 6: 1-3; Luke 4: 16-30). His own brothers 
did not believe in him (John 7:5). Some of his friends 
zonsidered him deranged (Mark 3:21; John 7: 20; 
10:20). The Jewish leaders hated him and repeatedly 
“threatened him with death. His enemies regarded him 
Jas a devilish exorcist and the arch-fiend Beelzebub. 
‘He could not possibly be a prophet or the expected 
2 Messiah, because he came from the disreputable prov- 
“ince of Galilee. He was known to be an associate of 
‘wicked, worldly people. He was charged with being 
‘ seditionist, dangerous to the Roman rule. The Jew- 
ish authorities denounced him as positively blasphe- 
ious in ‘‘making himself equal with God” (John 5 : 18; 
Di335-19):.7). 
On the other hand, some favorable estimates of 
‘esus were held by his associates. He was loved by 
ae poor and sinful, and was especially welcomed in 
omes and by children. He was a popular preacher 
and healer, possessing extraordinary authority. He 
was marvellously wise. He was adjudged faultless by 
two Roman authorities. The populace hailed him as 
‘a king and also as the expected Jewish Messiah. All 






244 THE WORLD’S ._LIVING RELIGIONS 


the first five books of the New Testament report that | 
many persons were led by his deeds to glorify God. 
Indeed, all four Gospels report that the impression | 
which Jesus made upon observers was that he was | 
“Son of God.” 

The Christian veneration of Jesus is of a person who | 
possessed a superbly comprehensive character. On the 
one hand, he is genuinely and admirably human. He 
shares variously in the normal characteristics of man-_ 
kind, but in these at their best. Thus Jesus is esteemed — 
a very wonderful representation of man as he actually 
is, and also a very wonderful representation of what 
man will become by the help of divine grace. Jesus is 
the ideal whom every Christian should imitate. 


Have this mind in you, which was also in Christ Jesus. (Philip- 
pians 2: 5.) 


On the other hand, Jesus is also genuinely divine. 
Within the circumstances of time and humanity he 
shares in the moral character of the eternal God. 
Thus Jesus is venerated as a very wonderful represen- 
tation of God, especially of the purpose of God to save | 
mankind. 


6. The History of Christianity. 
Jesus taught potent principles of religious belief and 


life, which have been applied variously in the growth 
of the Christian Church of to-day. 


(1) The Early Christian Community (30-50 A. D.). 


The assurance of a resurrected and living Christ 
transformed the dejected followers of the crucified Jesus 
into outspoken witnesses. The early Christians con- 
tinued to worship in the temple at Jerusalem as faith- 
ful Jews. But they formed a distinct community, de- 


CHRISTIANITY 245 


voted to Jesus as their Lord. The rulers, however, 
persecuted them severely, and scattered them widely. 
Yet their numbers continually increased. 


(2) The Work of Paul (50-65 A. D.). 

By his original Jewish training, by his experience of 
conversion to Christianity, by his thoughtfulness and 
activity, Paul was remarkably fitted to be the first 
Christian leader to realize the fuller significance of 
Jesus, and actually to make Christianity international. 
He saw that Jesus, through his conception of God and 
through his own life, had brought into the world a 
new life of religious freedom and power. Paul’s letters 
to the churches which he established in Europe and 
Asia were the earliest writings in the New Testament. 
They have become permanent expressions of Christian 
thought and practice. 


(3) The Completion of the New Testament (65-150 
A. D.). 

Most important for the entire subsequent history of 
Christianity was the early literary work done in re- 
cording the life of Jesus Christ and the beginnings of 
the Christian Church, the interpretation of Jesus and 
practical exhortations for Christian living. These 
writings came into actual use in the public worship of 
the Christian community during this period. 


(4) Christianity’s Struggle for Existence in the Roman 
Empire (150-325 A. D.). 

After its first persecutions from its own parent re- 
ligion Christianity encountered and survived perse- 
cutions from several of the Roman emperors. The 
first Roman monarch to be converted to Christianity 
and formally to receive Christian baptism was Con- 
stantine. In 325 A. D., at Nicea, he convened in per- 


246 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS | 


son the first Council of the entire Christian Church. | 
He made Christianity the official religion of the empire, | 


and adopted the cross as the official Christian symbol. | 


(5) Becoming the One Official Religion of All Europe 
(325-1054 A. D.). 

During this period the Christian Church suffered 
from some theological and ecclesiastical disputes con- 


cerning the metaphysical nature of Christ and also | 


from inadequate practical applications of the Christian 


life, as in monasticism. Nevertheless, the Christians — 


accomplished during these seven centuries what has 
never been accomplished on any other continent except 


in America, and that, too, for Christianity, viz., that | 
practically all the national governments in an entire © 


continent were led to profess a common religion. 


(6) The Supremacy of the Pope (1054-1517 A. D.). 
Then, for about five centuries, the outstanding fact 


was the unsurpassed power of the bishop of Rome, — 


even over some of the governments of western Europe. 


The medieval church may be criticised for many short- | 


comings. But it was the most effective agency for aid- 
ing the poor and the weak, and for promoting law, or- 
der, and education during this whole period of European 
history. It was the only agency in the whole world 
which was striving, however imperfectly, for that ideal 
which is still unattained, a spiritual unity of the people 
which is superior to all political or racial groupings, 
functioning for the promotion of justice, peace, mercy, 
co-operation, and fraternity. 


(7) The Reformation, and World-Wide Dissemination 
(1517 A. D.). 


After vigorous, but availing, protests by Wycliff, 


‘CHRISTIANITY 247 


Huss, and other reformers against the extravagant 
claims and practices of the Roman papacy, a German 
monk named Martin Luther successfully led “the 
Protestant Reformation.” ‘This was a complex pop- 
ular movement aiming to secure social, economic, edu- 
cational, and governmental betterment as well as eccle- 
siastical and theological reform. Roman Catholicism 
also underwent a certain corresponding “counter- 
reformation” and revival. The most important ob- 
jective fact in the history of Christianity has been 
its dissemination both by Roman Catholics and by 
Protestants to all parts of the inhabited world. 

Thoroughly to Christianize human life is a process 
partly geographical, but also intellectual, social, indus- 
trial, national, and international. It can be accom- 
plished only with mutual appreciation, co-operation, 
and progress. The Orient and the Occident must work 
together for this stupendous ideal. The foremost prob- 
lem and inspiring task of Christianity at the present 
time is to appreciate and apply the full Christian gos- 
pel of God. 


7. The Conception of God in Christianity. 

In every religion the controlling and comprehensive 
conceptign is concerning the character of the Supreme 
Being. 

Historically, the Christian belief concerning God 
started from the highest point that had been reached 
in Judaism. When Jesus declared “the first and great 
commandment” in religion, he did not announce some 
new idea, nor even some new formula. He quoted di- 
rectly from the “Shema”’ or confession of faith, which 
was a part of every synagogue worship, and which every 
pious Jew was supposed to repeat twice daily. 


The Lord Our God—the Lord is one. And thou shalt love the 


248 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with ~ 
all thy might. (Deuteronomy 6: 4-5.) | 


(1) Love of the One God. 


God, in Christianity as in Judaism, is the sovereign 
moral personality of the world. Many verses in the 
New Testament describe his characteristics, e. g., all- 
seeing and all-knowing, “Lord of heaven and earth,” 
righteous, holy, merciful, a just judge of the world, and 
a great king. 

However, Jesus made a certain new emphasis in Jew- 
ish monotheism when he taught that the supreme God 
is supremely loving, and that the indispensable prac- 
tical consequence of love to God is unselfish love to 
one’s neighbor. For this purpose he again quoted, 
verbatim, from the Old Testament: 


Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. (Leviticus 19 : 18.) 


Yet even so Jesus’ teaching marks a remarkable ad- 
vance beyond the religion of the Old Testament. Ju- 
daism had interpreted the idea of a neighbor as being 
a member of a certain group. Jesus, in his parable of 
the Good Samaritan, interpreted neighborliness as the 
giving of loving help to any human being in need. 


(2) The Kingdom of God. 


Both Jews and Christians believe that, despite dis- 
belief and disobedience on the part of men, God’s moral 
rule will at some time in the future be fully established 
over the whole world. The phrase “‘The kingdom of 
God”’ never occurs once in the Old Testament, although 
it is approximated there in at least seven passages. 
The phrase, with its variant “kingdom of Heaven,” in 
Matthew, is the most frequently recurring phrase in 
the four Gospels. 

The difference between the two religions is more than 





CHRISTIANITY 249 


verbal. Judaism cherishes the hope that at some in- 


definite date God, by his own power, will finally estab- 


lish his rule. Jesus set all his followers to work and 
pray daily for the great consummation by actively 


doing the will of God, and by carrying the Christian 


gospel “even unto the uttermost part of the earth.” 


(3) The Forgiveness of God. 


The teaching of Jesus concerning the forgiveness of 
sins constitutes another very important part of Chris- 
tianity, and also a very significant continuation, yet 
differentiation, of it from Judaism. Many passages in 
the Old Testament represent Jehovah as a God of 
wrathful vengeance. Consequently, a Jew was ex- 
plicitly allowed, and even commanded, to exact re- 
taliation for an injury. 

Thine eyes shall not pity. Life shall go‘for life, eye for eye, tooth 


for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot. (Deuteronomy 19: 21; 
also Exodus 21 : 23-25; Leviticus 24 : 17-21.) 


The priestly code in the Old Testament prescribes 
elaborate material sacrifices (Leviticus 1-7). Some 
few passages offer Jehovah’s free forgiveness of sins 
without specifying any conditions. Only a very few 
passages intimate that God forgives sins upon condi- 
tion of personal repentance (II Chronicles 7 : 14; Isaiah 
55:7; Ezekiel 33 : 15-16). Out of these four methods 
by which the Jews believed that God deals with sins, 
Jesus chose only the last, which is the highest and hard- 
est. Yet even so he introduced two further notable 
innovations. 

First, Jesus taught that God forgives sins not merely 
upon condition of personal repentance, but also upon 
condition of the sinner himself having given forgive- 
ness to all who may have done wrong to him, even his 
enemies, because God also gives unfailing good treat- 


250 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


ment to all (Matthew 5: 23-24, 43-48; 6:12-15; 
Mark 11: 25-26; Luke 6: 27-36; 17:3-4). This is 
unparalleled among the religions of the world. 

The second marvellous innovation which Jesus in- 
troduced into the religious life of Judaism, and even 
of the world, was his own example. No individual in 
Old Testament history;-arid no founder among the re- 
ligions of the world, is reported to have forgiven as 
Jesus forgave. Under circumstances of undeserved 
humiliation, while dying upon the cross, Jesus was 
thoughtful for his enemies and prayed for them: 


Father, forgive them; for théy know not what they do. (Luke 
23 : 34.) 


This forgiving attitude has helped to interpret the char- 
acter of God and Jesus’ own filial relation to God’s 
plan for the redemption of the world (John 3: 16). 


(4) The Fatherhood of God. 


The distinctively Christian conception of God is that 
he is “the Father of our spirits’’ (Hebrews 12: 9). 

In the Old Testament the distinctive designation for 
deity is “Jehovah,” with emphasis on the attributes of 
holy aloofness and sovereignty. He is described in a 
number of places as caring for individuals. And there 
are twenty-five passages in the Old Testament which, 
either explicitly or inferentially, teach the specific anal- 
ogy that God isa Father. Yet even so he is the Father 
of a group, such as Israel, or the Father of “them that 
fear him” (Psalms 103:13). Never once does the Old 
Testament intimate that Jehovah is the universal 
Father of all mankind. Only two passages speak of 
“our” Father, and both of these speak of him as in- 
comprehensibly arbitrary (Isaiah 63 : 16-17; 64: 8-9). 
Never once does the Old Testament report any indi- 


CHRISTIANITY 251 


vidual as actually addressing God in prayer “my 
Father.” Never once did Jesus, or any of the New 
Testament writers, use the characteristic Jewish term 
for God. Indeed, when Jesus quoted from a Psalm 
where the name “Jehovah” occurs ten times, and from 
a verse which contains that name, he omitted the tra- 
ditional mystic name, and used instead the simple 
designation “‘Father”’ (Luke 23 : 46; Psalms 31: 5). 

Jesus’ characteristic designation for God is reported 
about 150 times in the four Gospels to be “Father,” 
used in various connections. 


“The Father,’ used in sixty-one verses. 
“O Father,” in prayer to God—seventeen verses. ? 
“My Father,”’ in fifty verses. 

“Your Father,” sometimes “your heavenly Father,’ 


verges. 
«Quibgiaither,” in the Lord’s prayer. (Matthew 6:9; Luke 11: 2.) 


BI 


in eighteen 


Altogether the word “Father” as referring to God 
occurs ab@yt 300 times in the New Testament. 

Nowhere among the sacred scriptures of the world 
is there to be found even an approximation to this wide 
and consistent usage among all writers of the sacred 
scriptures of Christianity of this simple, vital, intimate, 
feelingful, personal name, “Father,” used along with 
the more abstract term “‘God.” 


(5) Some Emphases in the Christian Conception of 
God. 

The distinctively Christian conception of the Father- 
hood of God retains selectively the noblest elements in 
the distinctively Jewish conception of the sovereignty 
of God. And then it proceeds to supplement them with 
still better features. 

Both conceptions contain some common elements, 
such as: supreme authority in the group, insistence 


252 THE WORLD'S LIVING RELIGIONS 


upon obedience to law, and punishment to wrong-| 


doers. 


The different elements may be presented succinctly 


in a table of parallels, which state the relation between | 
the head and the subordinate members in the two. 


different groups: 


A SoOvEREIGN 


is superior to his subjects in au- 
thority. 


dominates from above. 


commands obedience. 


rules through law. 


is concerned for the glory of his 
principles. 


is impartial between persons. 


causes wrong-doers to suffer. 


A FATHER ALSO 


is similar to his children in essen- 
tial personality. 


shares with, and assimilates. 


trains through, and for, co-opera- 
tion. 


controls through influence. 


loves, serves, forgives 
sons. 


ears per- 


is especially appreciative of per- 
sons. 


himself suffers wi® wrong-doers, 
even while punishing “for our 
profit, that we may be partakers 
of he holiness.”’ (Hebrews 12: 
10. 


8. Christianity’s Problem of Evil and Salvation, 
Analyzed and Differentiated. 

At least a dozen different kinds of evil may be ana- 

lyzed. Accordingly there are as many different kinds 


of good to be desired: 


Tue Kinp or Tuer SPECIAL Tur CorrESPONDING 
Evin DISTRESS SALVATION 
Physical. Pain, suffering, sick- Good health. 
ness. 
Intellectual. Ignorance. Knowledge. 
Metaphysical. Limitation on indi- Wholeness, oneness 


viduality. 


with the All. 





- CHRISTIANITY 253 


Emotional. Sorrow. Peace, serenity. 
Volitional. Failure. Power, success. 
Social. Disorder, injustice. Orderly justice. 
Legal. Crime. Obedience to command, 
’ submissiveness. 
sthetic. Ugliness. Beauty. 
Ceremonial. Impropriety. Propriety, rite. 
Moral. Wrong. Right. 
Religious. Sin against deity. Righteousness. 
yey Chris- Selfishness. ' Love. 
| tian. 


The@preadth and depth of a religion may almost be 
measured by the keenness of its analysis of evil and 
by the appropriateness of the salvation which it offers. 
Thus Jainism is concerned chiefly with physical evil; 
yet even so the Jains are not encouraged by their re- 
ligion to enjoy good health, but rather to practise bodily 
asceticism. Buddhism is concerned chiefly with emo- 
tional evil; yet even so the Buddhists are not encour- 
aged to live a more abundant personal and social life, 
but rather to suppress individuality altogether. Jesus 
alone among the founders of religions declared to his 
followers that he “came that they may have life, and 
may have it abundantly”? (John 10:10). 

Among the religions of the world Christianity pre- 
sents the most remarkable combination of evils to be 
overcome and also of abundant satisfactions to be 
secured in a comprehensive, harmonious salvation. 
Christianity is far from pessimistic; yet it perceives in 
the world much more of evil which is amenable to posi- 
tive betterment than does any other religion. Op- 


—— 


254 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


timistically, Christianity perceives an abundance of | 
resources in the form of responsible and responsive 
persons, both God and oneself and other people who 
are available for the overcoming of evil, and for the 
positive enjoyment of abundant good. An incisive 
presentation, comparison, and classification of religions 
may be made according to the answers which they give 
to five simple, but profound, questions regarding evil 
and salvation. 
These are the five questions: 


(1) How extensive is evil? 

(2) Who is responsible for evil? 

(3) What really is evil? ‘ 
(4) How may an individual attain salvation ? | 
(5) What is the programme for social salvation? 


The answers to each question in order by eight re- 
ligions follow: 


(1) Evil Is Something Virtually to Be Ignored. 


Taoism says: 


(1) There is very little evil in the world. 

(2) No one is to be held responsible. There exists no supreme 
personal God, nor a personal Devil, nor hardly an imper- 
sonal Law. A human being may be a fool and a sufferer, 
but he is not a sinner. 

(3) No need of a theory of evil. 

(4) Simply by a quiet following of the impersonal “Way” (Tao) 
of the world. 

(5) No social programme of salvation, except “‘Return to Nature.” 


(2) Evil Is Ultvumately Unreal (Because Illusory). 


Hinduism says: 


(1) No evil really; only a temporary mistaking. 

(2) No one responsible: neither the evanescent individual, nor the 
eternal Brahma; illusion is inherent in existence. 

(3) The temporary illusion of apparent individuality, due to ig- 
norance of the divine immanence. 





CHRISTIANITY 255 


(4) Best by pantheistic knowledge and rapture; also by emotional 
religious devotion; also by ceremonial works. 

(5) No soon programme of salvation; the caste system is per- 
petual. 


(3) Evil Is Relatwely Unreal (Because Arbitrary). 


Islam says: 


(1) Not much evil in the world; mostly among the non-submitters, 
2. e., the non-Moslems. 

(2) An individual human being may be insubordinate; yet strictly 
it is the omnipotent Allah who does everything, and no kind 
of responsibility may be charged against the inscrutable 
Supreme Being by any human individual. 

(3) Any lack of submissiveness. 

(4) Any individual may surely attain Paradise by submission 
vee to the inevitable and by forcible propaganda for 

slam. 

(5) No social programme of salvation, except to make Allah and 
Islam genuinely dominant—by force, if need be. 


(4) Evil Is Very Real. 
Buddhism says: 


(1) All existence is evil; “‘to be” means ‘“‘to be miserable.” 

(2) No one is responsible for evil in the world, although the law 
of Karma does entail suffering upon an individual for his 
deeds in a previous incarnation. 

(3) The inherent insatiability of desire; the miserable consequences 
of all individuality and of all activity. 

(4) By supvressing desire; thereby escape from individuality, ac- 
tivity and the necessity of re-incarnation. 

(5) No special programme of salvation, except to flee from all soci- 
ety into quietude, preferably into a monastery. 


Jainism says: 


(1) Half of all existence is evil; matter, as distinct from spirit, is 
essentially and permanently evil. 

(2) No one; the world itself is inherently and statically dualistic. 

(3) Simply the encumbrance of a vile material body upon an in- 
dividual’s eternal spirit. 

(4) By suppressing the flesh, and thus freeing the individual’s 
spirit. 

(5) Nora programme of salvation; the superior religionist is 
properly an ascetic. 


256 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


Zoroastrianism says: : 
(1) Half of all existence is evil, viz., all darkness, untruth, errot 
and death. 


(2) The Devil (Angra Mainyu) alone is ultimately responsible for 
evil in the world. ; 

(3) Simply the natural opposition between the forces of good and 
of evil; an active dualism is inherent in the very constitu- | 
tion of the world. 

(4) By. obedience to the good God (Ahura Mazda); specifically by" 

“good thoughts, good words, good deeds.” 

(5) No special programme of social salvation, though originally. 
Zoroaster enjoined agricultural improvement; let every one 
make a general good effort, and finally God will be trium- 
phant at the end of the world. | 


Confucianism says: 


(1) Not much evil in the world; man is inherently good. 

(2) Superiors are responsible for lack of proper superiority, and 
inferiors are responsible for lack of proper subordination. 

(3) The fundamental evil is social impropriety. | 

(4) Simply by observing the rules of reciprocal social propriety. _ 

(5) A social programme of salvation is simply good propriety, good) 
example, and good government. 


Christianity says: 

(1) Evil is a terrible and wide-spread fact in human life; man was 
made potentially good; yet all individuals are liable to evil, 
and actually do sin against God, against other persons, and 
also against their own best self. 

(2) God is responsible for the possibility of evil in the world through 
having given free will unto men; the social organization of 
man is responsible for the transmission of evil through 
heredity and variously otherwise; each individual is directly 
responsible for choosing evil, rather than good. 

(3) The fundamental evil is any selfish use of God-given free will; 
any injury done towards moral personality. “ ) 

(4) By the individual’s loving whole-heartedly, by society’s or- 
ganizing servicefully, and by God’s helping graciously. 

(5) A social programme of salvation is imperative, even for the 
individual's salvation; every individual and all society must 
render reciprocal service with God’s continual help in fel- 
lowship with Jesus Christ. 


9g. Elements of Strength in Christianity. 
Its conception of God as a loving, holy Father, 


CHRISTIANITY Q57 


The character and the teachings of its founder, Jesus 
i hrist. 

Its conception of a divine Holy Spirit, providing for 
rogress. 

Its teaching concerning the Kingdom of God. 

Its confidence that even death does not check the 
‘constant development of human life. 

Its distinctive scripture. 

Its practical responsiveness to relieve suffering. 

Its civilizing influence. 

Its missionary activity. 








‘0. Elements of Weakness in Christianity. 

The tendency in certain sections of Christendom to 
‘elapse from the founder’s lofty ideal of personal fel- 
owship with God. 

The tendency in certain sections of Christendom to 
shirk the responsibilities which accompany the privi- 
eges belonging to children of God. 

The tendency in certain sections of Christendom to 
yveremphasize theology instead of maintaining the 
‘ounder’s emphasis on moral conduct. 

The tendency in certain sections of Christendom to 
ye domineering, instead of following the founder’s 
seaching and example of humble service. 

The tendency in certain quarters of Christendom to 
livide, because of questions of belief, worship, and or- 
zanization, instead of fulfilling the founder’s ideal of 
orotherly love and unity. 


XIII | 


A SUMMARY COMPARISON OF THE 

LIVING RELIGIONS : 
1. Some General Points of Similarity and Dissimi- 
larity. | 
The religions of the world, all without exception, have 
some features in common. Yet even at those points 
Christianity can be differentiated. These common. 

features deserve a special review and examination. 


(1) The Belief 1n One Supreme Being. 


This idea was frankly repudiated by original Jainism 
and by original Buddhism. But in the later develop- 
ments of both systems the founder was worshipped. 

Judaism up to the Exile believed in one supreme 
worshipful God, Jehovah, and acknowledged also that 
other nations might just as properly worship their re- 
spective deities. But after the period of the Exile the 
Jews were consistently monotheistic. 

Confucianism teaches the belief in one Supreme 
Being, designated either personally as “Supreme 
Ruler,” or impersonally as “Heaven.” But Confu- 
cianism has limited the worship of this Being to only 
one person in China, the emperor, and that, too, only 
once a year, on the night of the winter solstice, Decem- 
ber 22. Popular Confucianism encourages the common 
people to worship many spirits, both nature spirits and 
the spirits of deceased ancestors. 

Zoroastrianism sets forth one cosmic Power which is 
supremely worshipful, Ahura Mazda. But this Being 

258 : 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS 259 


is not supremely powerful, because there has always 
existed an opposing cosmic Power, Angra Mainyu, the 
arch spirit of evil. Furthermore, Zoroastrianism recog- 
nizes many other good spirits, subordinate to Ahura 
Mazda, yet deserving of worship. 

Both Hinduism and Taoism believe in one supreme 
impersonal cosmic Being, named Brahma and Tao, re- 
spectively, to be meditated upon, but not exactly to 
be worshipped. But in both religions the phases have 
been notoriously polytheistic, characterized by the ac- 
tual worship of many deities. 

Genuine monotheism, that is, a definite belief in and 
a worship of one supreme cosmic Power by all people, 
can be found in only four religions: postexilic Juda- 
ism, Christianity, Muhammadanism, and Sikhism. 

While these four religions agree as to the oneness 
of God, yet Christianity is unique as regards the moral 
character of God. Neither Judaism nor Muham-_ 
madanism present a deity who'in his own character is 
self-sacrificingly seeking the redemption of the world, 
and who in human history has been represented by a 
person of that same moral character. Christianity’s 
doctrine of monotheism has the highest possible moral 
content—a holy, loving heavenly Father, who actively 
seeks the welfare, trust, obedience, co-operation, love, 
and worship of all mankind. 


(2) The Claim of Dwwine Incarnation. 

The idea that deity can become incarnate is found 
in several religions, but with various settings and ap- 
plications. 

In philosophic Hinduism, ever since the period of the 
Upanishads, every object may be regarded as a tem- 
porary manifestation or embodiment or impersonation 
of the impersonal, non-moral, eternal Brahma, though 


260 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


the high-caste Brahman priests are especially venerated 
as such. 

In popular Hinduism there are several deities, no- 
tably Krishna and Rama, who are believed to have 
taken the form of men. The god Vishnu is believed 
to have entered upon several incarnations; the list 
varies from nine to twenty-two, but alway includes 
animals. None of these Hindu “Avatars” are rep- 
resented as morally perfect, nor are they represented 
as manifestations of one supreme personal cosmic deity. 

In Buddhism, despite its explicitly non-theistic basis, 
Buddha came to be regarded as a kind of incarnation, 
yet even so only as one of some twenty-four incarnate / 
“Buddhas,” with a twenty-fifth still to come. 

In Muhammadanism, despite its dominant doctrine 
of the absolute transcendence of Allah, the doctrine of 
incarnation has manifested itself. The Shiite sect 
broke away from the other main sect, the Sunite, on 
the issue that the fourth caliph, Ali, was a veritable 
Imam, or divine incarnation, and therefore the true 
successor of the Prophet. But some subsects among 
the Shiites differ concerning the exact number of still 
other incarnations, whether seven or twelve, and con- 
cerning the identity of the last one. 

In Christianity, however, there is a distinctive and 
central teaching concerning Jesus Christ as a unique 
incarnation, the Word of God, pre-eminently mani- 
fested in a historic person, on the ground that his moral 
character perfectly represents the character and pur- 
pose of the invisible holy God, so far as these character- 
istics can be compassed within the range of a human life. 


(3) The Claim of a Supernatural Origin of the Founder. 


Four non-Christian religions advance a theory of a 
supernatural birth of the founder. 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS 261 


Buddha in some later scriptures which abound in the 
marvellous is represented as a pre-existent heavenly 
being who, in connection with a prophetic dream of a 
queen, became her first-born son when she was forty- 
five years old. 

Lao-tze in documents dating a thousand years after 
his day is represented as having been born a fully ma- 
tured “Wise Old Boy,” or “Wise Old Philosopher,” 
with white hair, who had been carried in his mother’s 
womb for sixty-two years, or for seventy-two years, 
or for eighty-one years, according to different tradi- 

tions. 

Mahavira in a Jain document dating 980 years 
after him is represented as a pre-existent being who, 
in fulfilment of fourteen wonderful prophetic dreams, 
was supernaturally placed in his royal mother’s 
womb. 

_ A virgin birth seems to be intimated in the case of 
Zoroaster. According to a late document his mother 
Was supernaturally “glorified”? when she was an un- 
married young woman of fifteen. Three future saviors 
in Zoroastrianism are certainly predicted to be born of 
‘a mother who, similarly, is to be a virgin fifteen years 
old. 

In the canonical New Testament of Christianity 
there are varying data concerning a divine, or an 
ordinary, origin of Jesus. However, Jesus repre- 
sented himself, and he was recognized by others, as 
having come from God, whom he called “Father,” and 
with whom he lived constantly in the intimacy and 
likeness of a son. 


(4) The Claim of Divine Revelation. 
Every one of the eleven living religions in the world 
has made the claim of possessing divinely saving truth, 


262 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


not merely man-made, nor even man-discovered. 
Moreover, every Christian may recognize certain spe- 
cific revelations of truth which God has made in each 
one of the other systems of religion, whereby “He hath 
not left himself without witness” (Acts 14:17) any-- 
where among the communities in the world. The follow-. 
ing may be specified as outstanding revelations of truth: 


Hinduism The immanence of the divine in the world; 
human society, a divinely ordained struc- | 
ture; union with the divine, the goal of ex- 
istence. 

Jainism Self-renunciation, the condition of salvation; 
the ideal of a liberation of the spirit with 


subjugation of the flesh. 


Buddhism Selfishness as the root of misery; salvation 
: through inner purity and self-discipline. 
Sikhism Religion as discipleship of the One True God, 

with trust in His Name. 
Confucianism The essential goodness of human nature, as 


divinely implanted; religion as exercised in 
proper social relationships. 


Taoism Religion as exercised in humbly following the | 
serene divine “Way.” | 
Shinto Nature to be recognized as a beautiful divine 


creation; religion as involving purity and 
also loyalty to the supreme authority. 


Judaism Superlative satisfaction to -be obtained 
through obedience to a God of righteous- 
ness. 

Zoroastrianism Religion as involving active co-operation with 


a cosmic Power of goodness in a struggle 
against evil. 

Muhammadanism Superlative satisfaction to be obtained 
through submission to an omnipotent God, 
who is not only a sovereign, but also a 
judge and rewarder. 


All of the foregoing teachings among the religions of 
the world may properly be regarded as divine revela- 
tions of truth. None of them are lacking in Christi- 
anity. But in Christianity they are included, harmo- 
nized, and supplemented by a higher revelation; that 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS ~— 263 


the Supreme Power in the world is a perfect Person; 
‘that he may best be conceived of and lived with as a 
Father-God; that he has been adequately presented 
by his Son Jesus Christ; and that the supreme satis- 
faction of every human being consists in loving obedi- 
ence to him and in loving service to brother man. 





(5) The Claim of an Inspired Scripture. 

None of the twelve dead religions possessed anything 
which might be called a canon of sacred scriptures. 
But all of the eleven living religions do possess definite 
sets of documents which are regarded as conveying 
unique divine truths which need to be known for sal- 
vation: 


Hinduism **Vedas,”’ books of “‘ Knowledge.” 
Jainism “Angas,” “Bodies”’ of knowledge. 
Buddhism *“Tripitaka,”’ “Three Baskets”’ of teachings. 
Sikhism **Granth,” pre-eminently “The Book.” 
Confucianism “The Five Classics” and ‘‘The Four Books.” 
Taoism *Tao0-Teh-King,” “The Canon of Reason and 
Virtue.” 
~ Shinto **Ko-ji-ki,” “The Records of Ancient Mat- 
_ ters,” and ‘‘Nihon-gi,” ‘‘’The Chronicles of 
Japan.” 
Judaism “The Law,” “The Prophets,” and “The 
Sacred Writings.” 
Zoroastrianism ** Avesta,” ““The Knowledge.” 
Muhammadanism “Koran,” ‘‘The Reading,” or “The Recital.” 
Christianity “Bible,” pre-eminently “The Book.” 


For two among these sacred scriptures, the Rig Veda 
and the Koran, a theory of verbal inspiration and 
literal infallibility has been propounded as high as 
that set forth by some Christian theologians for the 
authority of the Bible. For all of them claims have 
been made as pre-eminent above the rest of literature. 


In Zoroastrianism: ‘‘ One marvel is the Avesta itself, which accord- 
ing to all the best reports of the world is a compendium of all 


264 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


the supremest statements of wisdom.’’ (Dinkard, 7:5. 11; 
SBE, 47 : 76.) 

In Shinto : ‘*‘ There is none among all the writings in the world so 
noble and important as this classic.” (‘‘ Nihon-gi,”’ translation 
by Aston, vol. I, p. xix, foot-note 1.) 


In Christianity the claim for unique inspiration of | 


its sacred scriptures is propounded along with a prac- 
tical test of its value. The Bible is offered to all peo- 
ple as pre-eminently inspired by God, because the 
Bible, through the knowledge which it gives of God 
and of man, does actually give the superlative inspira- 
tion for a holy religious life. 


(6) The Report of Miracles Wrought. 


All of the eleven living religions report, usually in 
connection with the life of their founders, some won- 
derful events of great religious significance. For ex- 
ample: 


Buddha: 


Crossed the river Ganges instantly without a boat. (SBE, 11: 21; 
17: 104.) 

Appearing and disappearing inexplicably. (SBE, 11: 48-49; 13: 
104-107.) 

Healed a sick woman simply by a look. (SBE, 17 : 83-84.) 

Converted an unbeliever by preaching and by miracle. (SBE, 
10:2. 12-14.) 

Converted multitudes by his many miracles. (SBE, 13 : 122-134; 
17 : 3-5; 19 : 221-226.) 

Fed 500 disciples without previous supplies. (Jataka Story, 78.) 


Zoroaster: 


Performed no miracles in the earliest documents, the Gathas. 
But many prodigies are reported later, e. g., in connection with 
his birth. (SBE, 47: 17-34, 139-143.) 

His infancy. (SBE, 47 : 35-46, 144-148.) 

His “‘curing of diseases, counteraction of wolves and other noxious 
creatures, liberating of rain, confining of hail, spiders, locusts, 
and other terrors.” (SBE, 47:76.) 





A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS ~— 265 


Muhammad: 


Repeatedly disclaimed miracle-working power, though challenged. 
(Koran 6: 109; 10:21; 17: 92-98; 21: 5-10; 29: 49.) 

Yet later is reported as having wrought many miracles. Fifty 
pages in Mirkhond’s medieval “Life.” 


While many of the reported miracles in the Bible 
may be paralleled from the sacred scriptures of other 
religions, no other historic person in the world has ever 
been reported to have arisen shortly after his death and 
burial, and to have continued his customary influence 
upon his disciples as in the case of Jesus. 


(7) The Principle of the “Golden Rule.” 


This teaching concerning the proper method of deal- 
ing with other people has been approximated as a sum- 
mary rule of right conduct in eight different systems 
of religion and philosophy: 


Hinduism: 
‘Do naught to others which, if done to thee, 
Would cause thee pain: this is the sum of duty.” 
(Mahabharata, 5: 1517; as translated in Monier-Williams, “‘In- 
dian Wisdom,” 446.) 


Buddhism: 


In five ways should a clansman minister to his friends and familiars, 
. by treating them as he treats himself. (Sigalovada Sutta, 
31; “Sacred Books of the Buddhists,” 4 : 182.) 

Is there a deed, Rahula, thou dost wish to do? Then bethink 
thee thus : “‘Is this deed conducive to my own harm, or to others’ 
harm, or to that of both?” ‘Then is this a bad deed, entailing 
suffering. Such a deed must thou surely not do. (Majjhima 
Nikaya, 1 : 415; as translated in Mrs. Rhys Davids, “‘ Buddhism,” 
125.) 


Confucianism: 


The “Silver Rule” of Confucius is to be found in six different 
places among the sacred scriptures of this religion, but uni- 
formly in the negative form : 

The Master replied : “*. . . What you do not want done to your- 


266 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


self, do not do unto others.” (Analects, 15:23; also 5:11; . 
12:2; Great Learning, 10:2; Decctrine of the Mean, 18: 8; Li 
Ki, 28: 1. 32; in SBE, 28 : 305.) | 





Taoism: 


Recompense injury with kindness. (SBE, 39: 106.) 

To those who are good to me, I am good; and to those who are 
not good to me, I am also good. And thus all get to be good. 
To those who are sincere with me, I am sincere; and to those 
who are not sincere with me, I am also sincere. And thus all 
get to be sincere. (SBE, 39:91.) 


Zoroastrianism: 


Whatever thou dost not approve for thyself, do not approve for 
any one else. When thou hast acted in this manner, thou art 
righteous. (SBE, 24 : 330.) 

That nature only is good when it shall not do unto another what- 
ever is not good for its own self. (SBE, 18 : 271.) 

When a good man is beaten through malice, the effort of every 
one . . . should continue just as though it happened to him- 
self. (SBE, 37:51.) 


Judaism: 


Take heed to thyself, my child, in all thy works; and be discreet 
in all thy behavior. And what thou thyself hatest, do to no 
man. (Tobit, 4: 14-15.) 

Whatsoever thou wouldest that men should not do unto thee, do 
not do that to them. (Babylonian Shabbath, 31a.) 


Greek Philosophy: 


Do not do to others what you would not wish to suffer yourself. 
(Isocrates, ‘‘ Nicocles, or the Cyprians,”’ 61; E.S. Forster, ‘‘ Isoc- 
rates’ Cyprian Orations,’’ 149.) 

Treat your friends as you would want them to treat you. (Aris- 
totle, as reported in Diogenes Laertius, “‘ Lives and Opinions of 
Eminent Philosophers,” 5:21; Bohn Library translation, 188.) 

Do not do what any one is vexed to suffer. (Philo’s dictum as 
reported in Eusebius, “Preeparatio Evangelica,” 8. 7. 6.) 


Christianity: 
All things therefore whatsoever ye would that men should do unto 
you, even so do ye also unto them. (Matthew 7:12.) 


As ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them like- 
wise. (Luke 6:31.) 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS = 267 


- In comparing the teachings of these eight systems, 
which bid a person apply to his conduct of other people 
the simple test whether he would like such treatment 
accorded to him, it will be perceived that Lao-tze and 
Jesus Christ are the only two founders of religions, or 
‘teachers of general wisdom, who stated the principle 
of the “Golden Rule” positively and universally, 7. ¢., 
not negatively as a warning to abstain from misbe- 
: havior, nor limitedly as a counsel to observe reciprocity 
within the circle of friends and good men. Yet even 
‘so Christianity is different, because Lao-tze is not re-_ 
ported as having done anything positive during eighty 
years of life besides giving his beautiful good advice; 
‘indeed, he actually withdrew from difficulty rather than 
face evil and organize some positive reform. 

Furthermore, at just this point of comparing the 
founders of religions or great original teachers of philo- 
sophic wisdom, where the principle of the “‘Golden 
Rule” has been approximated, it will be perceived that 
Jesus is unique in two remarkable ways. Jesus was 
the only one who himself applied that principle with 
consistent self-sacrifice, even toward enemies. And 
Jesus was the only one who based this universal rule of 
human conduct upon the character and universal con- 
duct of the Supreme Person himself: 





I say unto you: “Love your enemies, and pray for them that 
persecute you, that ye may be sons of your Father who is in 
heaven; for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and the good, 
and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust.” (Matthew 5: 
44-45.) 


(8) The Recognition of an Especially Sacred Com- 
munity. 
Every religion in the world teaches that there is, or 


should be, some particular group of people regarded as 
peculiarly sacred. 


268 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


The two most individualistic religions, viz., Jainism 
and Buddhism, have organized their holy ascetics into 
a monkish order (“Sangha,” or congregation); but 
women are regarded as inherently inferior. 

Hinduism teaches that its whole hereditary caste 
system is a sacred institution as compared with the 
rest of the world, and that as compared among them- 
selves the upper castes are successively the more 
holy. 

Muhammadanism cuts clean across the common ideas 
of hereditary status, of social superiorities, and even 
of international exclusiveness by its insistence upon 
absolute submission before the one omnipotent world 
potentate, Allah, and active joining in his cause. 


They who believe and have bled and have fought . . . these shall 
be next of kin to each other. (Koran, 8 : 73.) 


However, Muhammad taught that the infidels, who do 
not literally “submit themselves,’ and thus technically 
join the great sacred community of devoted “‘ Moslems,” 
deserve only to be exterminated. 

Christianity teaches that all human society should 
be made sacred in moral character, and that every 
individual and every nation should be brought lovingly 
into a comprehensive brotherhood of humanity under 
the universal Father-God. 


(9) The Hope of a Universal Religion. 


The eleven living religions cf the world fall into sev- 
eral groups when tested as to the extent of their hopes 
in the world. .- 

The idea of becoming universal does not occur in 
the sacred scriptures of two religions, viz., Sikhism and 
Shinto. And it seems never to have arisen in their 
whole history. 


| 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS ~— 269 


The idea of becoming a universal religion does not 


}occur in the sacred scriptures of three other religions, 
|viz., the chief national religions of India, China, and 


Japan, although within recent years, particularly since 


| the outbreak of the World War of 1914-1918, there have 
| arisen a few reformers who are advocating a world-wide 
|sweep for Hinduism, Confucianism, and Shinto respec- 





tively. 

In the case of three religions, Jainism, Judaism, and 
Zoroastrianism, the hope of their becoming universal 
stands clearly commanded in their sacred scriptures; 
but it has been definitely dropped in their later history. 

In the case of three other religions, Buddhism, Chris- 
tianity, and Muhammadanism, the plan of becoming 
universal stands clearly commanded in their sacred 
scriptures, and was acted upon by the founder him- 
self, and has been followed up actively in their later 
history, so that they have actually become interna- 
tional through missionary effort. 

Buddhism as a whole is now quiescent. Hence Mu- 
hammadanism remains as the only formidable rival to 
Christianity as a universal religion. Even so Muham- 
madanism excludes half of its own adult adherents, the 
women, from full participation in the privileges and re- 
sponsibilities of their professed religion. 

Christianity alone among the religions of the world 
teaches a basis broad enough for a genuinely universal 
religion, that all human beings are children of a com- 
mon Father-God. And Christianity teaches also a 


practical, constructive programme for attaining unto 
universality: all Christians should engage in loving 


self-sacrifice, in winsome religious testimony, and in 
varied systematic service unto all the world. This is 
a stupendous hope, which requires the fullest co-opera- 
tion of all Christians. 


270 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


(10) The Hopes and Fears of a Future Life. 


All the religions of the world have the teaching that 
the spiritual life of the human individual continues be- 
yond physical death. However, the various religions 
differ widely concerning the details in their picture of 
the future life, and even concerning the desirability of 
a future life. 

Hinduism and Buddhism teach that the present life 
is so sadly marred by illusion and suffering that it 
really is not worth continuing; although the future life 
is thus for most people a dread necessity, yet by various 
proper processes a person’s evanescent miserable indi- 
viduality may finally be extirpated altogether. 

Jainism teaches that immortality is inherently un- 
avoidable, with ultimate residence in either heaven or 
in hell. 

All four of the religions which originated in India 
teach the doctrine of transmigration—that by power of 
the inexorable impersonal law of Karma a person’s soul 
becomes reincarnate after death in some other earthly 
body, according to his conduct in this present life. 

Confucianism regards religion as consisting chiefly 
of proper ethical conduct, yet offers for the future 
only a ghostly kind of existence, without hope of 
heaven, without fear of hell, without consequences of 
any kind resulting from a person’s present manner of 
living. 

Zoroastrianism and Muhammadanism teach an in- 
escapable picturesque judgment scene, when appro- 
priate rewards and punishments will be administered. 
Muhammadanism glowingly pictures a paradise which 
shall contain abundant sensual delights for the pious, 
and a hell with perpetual agonies of physical torments 
for the unsubmissive unbeliever. Zoroastrianism re- 
duces the sensual features of heaven and hell to a mini- 





A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS ~— 271 


mum, and finally manages to eliminate all evil, but by 
means of an apocalyptic ceremonial. 

Christianity contains a considerable variety of escha- 
tological belief within the Bible, and also in its subse- 
quent history. However, Christianity has taught uni- 
formly that there will be a sure and just judgment for 
all mankind, when the good people will enter into the 
increasing joy of closer fellowship with God, and when 
the wicked will suffer the terrible consequences of the 
separation from God, which they have already chosen. 
“God is not mocked. Whatsoever a man soweth, that 
shall he also reap”’ (Galatians 6:7). Jesus clearly of- 
fered to his followers the glorious hope of a progressive 
spiritual life, but only upon the condition of a person’s 
present loving attitude toward personalities. The al- 
ternative consequences have been variously formulated. 
One of the influential formulas on this problem has 
been a sentence from Paul: “The wages of sin is 
death, but. the gift of God is eternal life” (Romans 
6 : 23). 


2. The Radical Dissimilarities of Christianity. 


The foregoing comparison of the religions of the 
world has indicated ten specific points where there 
exist similarities between Christianity and other re- 
ligions. Yet at each of these ten points certain dis- 
similarities seem to a Christian to indicate the superi- 
ority of Christianity. 

_ There are three features of Christianity which cannot 

be paralleled anywhere among the religions of the 
world. In a comparison with the religions of the 
world these three distinctive features of Christianity 
will be recognized as being those which Christians 
themselves throughout their history have regarded as 
essential. 


272 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


(1) The Character of God as a Loving Heavenly Fathei 


The idea that God is a “Father” is fairly simple 
and it has been thought of in three other religions be 
sides Christianity. 

Zoroaster, in describing two of the six archangels| 
speaks of Ahura Mazda as the Father of Justice o 
Right, and also as the Father of Good Mind (Yasna 
44:3; 47:2, and Yasna, 31:8; 45:4, respectively) 
But Zoroastrianism never suggests that human being 
might regard God as their Father. 

In the sacred scriptures of Judaism there are four 
teen passages where Jehovah is alluded to as a Father 
but always as the Father of the people of Israel, or o 
“them that fear him” (Psalms 103 : 13); never once n 
its canonical scriptures does Judaism attribute uni 
versal fatherhood to Jehovah, even after Judaism hac 
conceived of Jehovah in universal terms. 

In the earliest document of Hinduism the most im 
portant among the almost fourscore deities, Indra, i: 
supplicated in various ways, even as being a “‘fathei 
(pitar), most fatherly of fathers’”’ (Rig Veda, 4 : 17. 17) 
Yet that same Hindu deity is also represented elsewhere 
in that same document as being a drunken braggart 
who boasts of his utter indifference to his human wor: 
shippers: 











**Not as a mote within the eye 
Count the five tribes of men to me! 
Have I not drunk of soma juice!” (Rig Veda, 10: 119. 5.) 
Griffith, ‘‘Hymns of the Rig Veda, Translated,” 2. 563. 


And the same Hindu deity, Indra, is represented 
later in the most philosophical of all the canonical 
scriptures of Hinduism as boasting of numerous spe- 
cific deeds of treacherous destructiveness which he did 
with impunity, and as assuring his followers that they 
also will be uninjured by any deed which they may do: 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS —= 273 


I slew the . . . son of Tvashtri. I delivered the Arunmukhas, 
ascetics, to the wild dogs. Transgressing many compacts, I 
transfixed the people of Prahlada, . . . the Paulomas, . . . the 
Kalanjakas. Of me, such a one as I was then, not a single hair 
was injured. So he who understands me—by no deed of his is 
his world injured. (Kaushitaki Upanishad, 3:1; translation, 
Hume, TPU, 320-321.) 






The more lofty idea of deity as being a “Heaven- 
Father,” is found in one notable instance among the 
eleven living religions of the world. One of the two 
\deities of the sky in early Hindu nature-worship, is 
designated six times in the Rig Veda with the title 
“Dyaus-Pitar,” which means precisely ‘‘Heaven- 
Father.” This Hindu deity belongs emphatically to 
the male sex. He is generally coupled with another 
|deity, who is his counterpart, a female deity named 
“Prithivi-Matar”’ (meaning “Earth-Mother’’). Lin- 
guistically, the names of these two deities occur in 
Sanskrit as a compound noun in the dual number for 
|designating the two parents of mankind. Thus, the 
exact application of the Hindu idea of heaven as being 
a “Father” is along the line of sexual paternity. How- 
lever, so minor is this particular deity in the Hindu 
pantheon, that among the 1,028 hymns of the Rig Veda, 
|there is not a single hymn addressed to him alone. In- 
deed, subsequently the person of the heaven god, Dyaus, 
disappeared entirely from Sanskrit literature, and even 
the gender of the noun became changed into feminine 
as a common noun, designating simply “day.” 

World-wide comparison shows that the very simple 
janalogy for God as being a “Father”? has been used 
jamong the non-Christian religions only with a very 
\limited application or with a very limited content. The 
noble moral idea that God is a loving, spiritual Father 
of all mankind, has been recorded nowhere among 
sacred scriptures except in Christianity. 


— 


a 


274 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


The New Testament is the only document among the 
canonical religious scriptures of the world which teaches 
that the Supreme Deity is a universal heavenly Father. 
One essential and unique feature of Christianity is the 
teaching that God is the wise, holy, serviceable Sover- 
eign of the whole world, who in his love and righteous- 
ness experiences suffering for the sins of his human 
children, and who patiently and successfully is helping 
to redeem men from their sins into the likeness of his 
own perfect character. 


(2) The Character of the Founder as Son of God and 
Brother of All Men. 


The nine founders among the eleven living religions 
in the world had characters which attracted many 
devoted followers during their own lifetime, and still 
larger numbers during the centuries of subsequent his- 
tory. They were humble in certain respects, yet they 
were also confident of a great religious mission. ‘Two 
of the nine, Mahavira and Buddha, were men so strong- 
minded and self-reliant that, according to the records, 
they displayed no need of any divine help, though 
they both taught the inexorable cosmic law of Karma. 
They are not reported as having possessed any con- 
sciousness of a supreme personal deity. Yet they have 
been strangely deified by their followers. Indeed, they 
themselves have been worshipped, even with multitu- 
dinous idols. 

All of the nine founders of religion with the excep- 
tion of Jesus Christ are reported, in their respective 
sacred scriptures, as having passed through a prelimi- 
nary period of uncertainty, or of searching for religious 
light. Confucius, late in life, confessed his own sense 
of shortcomings and his desire for further improve- 
ment in knowledge and character. All the founders 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS 275 


of the non-Christian religions evinced inconsistencies 
in their personal character; some of them altered their 
practical policies under change of circumstances. 

Jesus Christ alone is reported as having had a con- 
sistent God-consciousness, a consistent character him- 
self, and a consistent programme for his religion. The 
most remarkable and valuable aspect of the person- 
ality of Jesus Christ is the comprehensiveness and uni- 
versal availability of his character, as well as its own 
loftiness, consistency, and sinlessness. 

Jesus Christ seems to have grown up even as every 
-human being should grow. The record is explicit that 
“he advanced in wisdom and in stature, and in favor 
with God and man” (Luke 2:52). Christians believe 
that he was thus thoroughly normal, yet also that he is 
ideally typical. He is the unique, yet the exemplary, 
combination of being clearly a son of man and also pre- 
eminently the Son of God. He grew in the flesh, yet 
he participated consciously in the Eternal, and he has 
made the superlative manifestation of God to the world. 
He is Elder Brother of all men, foremost as the pioneer 
of their faith, and the Captain of their salvation. He 
is unequalled by any other person who has ever lived 
upon earth, yet he possesses the qualities of person- 
ality which all persons should possess. Indeed, by the 
fellowship of his grace they will attain unto the per- 
fection of his character. 


(3) The Work of a Divine Universal Holy Spirit. 


Along with the character of God and the character 
of the Founder there is a third item in the character- 
istic Christian belief and in the characteristic Chris- 
tian experience. All three items were taught by the 
Founder, as recorded in the sacred scriptures of Chris- 
tianity. They form the main points in the summary 


276 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


formula of the Christian faith, which is used in admit- 
ting new members. They have been regarded as essen- 
tials of Christianity from its beginnings as a separate 
religion. And now by a comparison with all the other 
living religions in the world they are seen to be the 
markedly distinctive features of Christianity, even 
while the other religions have made certain approxima- 
tions to these three essential and radically unique fea- 
tures of Christianity. 

Zoroastrianism teaches that its deity, Ahura Mazda, 
though limited, is “‘a bountiful spirit,” or else works 
through an agency which may be designated as 
“Bountiful Spirit”? (Spenta Mainyu). But in either 
interpretation of the exact meaning of the crucial 
words in the Avestan document, Zoroastrianism teaches 
that the good Spirit is not really supreme, because 
from the beginning of time there exists a coequal evil 
spirit. 

Confucianism teaches that the nature of man is abo- 
riginally or divinely good; but Confucianism does not 
teach that in the efforts of man for complete goodness 
there is any help from God available for every per- 
son. 

Judaism came the closest to Christianity in respect 
of the doctrine of the Spirit of God, but that doctrine 
occupies a very subordinate position in its sacred scrip- 
ture, and has been practically neglected in the actual 
religious life of Judaism. 

Christianity is the only religion which teaches as a 
doctrine of great practical as well as scriptural im- 
portance that there is at work in the world a divine 
universal Holy Spirit, indwelling, teaching, suggesting, 
reprimanding, inspiring, transforming, available for 
every individual who will open his heart to this divine 
inner influence. Jesus himself taught what every true 


A COMPARISON OF RELIGIONS — 277 


Christian experiences—that there is a powerful divine 
agency active in the world, seeking to apply the prin- 
ciples of Jesus, and leading on to a fuller appreciation 
of truth. 


(4) An Epitome of Christianity and of the World’s 
Religious Aspirations. 

These three essential and distinctive features of Chris- 
tianity may be stated systematically in relation to 
God, the chief essential of all religion, as follows: 

(a) In God there is something eternal. That aspect 
of God which perpetually is the creator and loving 
ruler of human life may best be known as “Father.” 

(b) In God there is something historic. That aspect 
of God which has come most fully into the compass of 
a human life, in the gracious character of Jesus Christ, 
may best be known as his “Son.” 

(c) In God there is something progressive. That 
aspect of God which like a continual companion is lead- 
ing human life forward may best be known as “Holy 
Spirit.” 

These three features of Christianity, on the one 
hand, are highly theoretical; they involve momentous 
theological implications. On the other hand, they are 
thoroughly practical; they may be understood and 
tested in experience. ‘Together they constitute a com- 
prehensive summary of what Christianity itself really 
is. But Christians also believe that these three Chris- 
tian beliefs represent exactly the finest aspirations 
among the religions of the world; accordingly, together 
they constitute a prophetic fulfilment of the religious 
history of the world. 

A compact statement of the essence of Christianity, 
and also of the blessing which Christianity seeks to 
give unto the world, has been formulated in the New 


278 THE WORLD’S LIVING RELIGIONS 


. ° a “ce | 
Testament in the well-known benediction: “The grace | 


of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the | 
communion of the Holy Spirit be with you all” (II 
Corinthians 13: 14). 


APPENDIX 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
I 
GENERAL 


SoURCES AND CYCLOPADIAS 


“Sacred Books of the East.”” Max Miiller, editor. 50 
vols. (Oxford, 1879-1904.) Invaluable as a col- 
lection of sources. But contains only seven re- 
ligions: Islam and Taoism, complete; Confucianism 
and Zoroastrianism, in large part; Jainism, in small 

part; Hinduism, 21 vols.; Buddhism, 10 vols. 

Bertholet, A. “Religionsgeschichtlicheslesebuch.” (Ti- 
bingen, 1908.) Contains selections from only six 
religions, topically arranged. But the only one- 
volume source-book in existence. 

Hastings, J. “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics.”’ 
12 vols. (Scribners, 1913-1922.) Valuable for 
treatment of special topics. 


Recent TExt-Booxks 


Barton, G. A. “‘The Religions of the World.” 2d 
ed., 1919. (University of Chicago.) Best text- 
book form. 

Cave, S. “An Introduction to Some Living Religions 
of the East.’’ (Scribners, 1921.) “A beginner’s 
guide to appreciate the nobler elements” of seven 
religions. 

Hopkins, E. W. “The History of Religions.” (Mac- 

279 


280 APPENDIX 


millan, 1918.) Very scholarly. Half devoted to 
primitive and defunct religions. 

Menzies, A. “History of Religions.’ Ist ed., 1895; 
4th ed., revised, 1914. (Scribners.) Not new, 
but discerning and vital. 

Moore, G. F. “History of Religions.” Vol. I, 1st ed., 
1913; 2d ed., 1920; vol. II, 1919. (Scribners.) 
Vast erudition. 

Moore, G. F. “Birth and Growth of Religion.” (Scrib- 
ners, 1923.) 

Myers, P. V. “History as Past Ethics, An Introduc- 
tion to the History of Morals.’’ (Ginn, 1913.) 

Paton, W. “Jesus Christ and the World’s Religions.” 
Ist ed., 1916; 2d ed., 1918. (London, United 
Council for Missionary Education.) A brief mis- 
sion-study text-book. 

Soper, E. D. “The Religions of Mankind.” Ist ed., 
1921; 3d ed., revised, 1923. (Abingdon Press.) 
Appreciative, graphic, developmental. 

Speer, R. E. “The Light of the World: A Brief Com- 
parative Study of Christianity and Non-Christian 
Religions.”? (Central Committee on the United 
Study of Missions, West Medford, Mass., 1911.) 

**Religions of Mission Fields as Viewed by Protestant 
Missionaries.” (Student Volunteer Movement for 
Foreign Missions, New York, 1905.) Nine re- 
ligions treated by missionaries. 


More Porunar TREATMENTS 
Martin, A. W. “Great Religious Teachers of the 
Kast’? (Macmillan, 1911), and “The World’s 
Great Semitic Religions and the Religion of the 
Future”? (Appleton, 1921). Two series of Sun- 
day-evening addresses before the Society for Ethi- 
eal Culture, New York. 


APPENDIX 281 


Reid, G. “A Christian’s Appreciation of Other Faiths: 
A Study of the Best in the World’s Greatest Re- 
ligions.”’ (Open Court, 1921.) Appreciations of 
five non-Christian religions. More appreciative 
than discriminating. 


I 


TRANSLATIONS OF THE SACRED 
SCRIPTURES OF HINDUISM 


Rig Veda: Griffith, R. T. H. “Hymns of the Rig 
Veda.” 2 vols. (Benares, 1896.) 
Atharva Veda: Whitney & Lanman. 2 vols in “Har- 
vard Oriental Series.” (1905.) 
Satapatha Brahmana: Eggeling, J. 5 vols., SBE, 12, 
.26, 41, 43, 44. (1882-1900.) 
Aitareya and Kaushitaki Brahmanas: Keith, A. B., in 
“Harvard Oriental Series.”’ (1920.) 
Upanishads: Max Muller, twelve in SBE, vols. 1 and 
15. (1879-1884.) 
Hume, R. E., “The Thirteen Principal Upani- 
shads.”” (Oxford, 1921.) 
Laws of Manu: Buhler, G. SBE, vol. 25. (1886.) 
Bhagavad Gita: Barnett, L. D., in “Temple Classics.” 
Arnold, Sir Edwin, “The Song Celestial,”’ in 
**Harvard Classics.” 
Davies, J., in “‘Triibner’s Oriental Series.” 
Epics: Dutt, R. C., “The Ramayana and the Maha- 
bharata, Condensed into English Verse,’ a free 
paraphrase of selections, ““Everyman’s Library.” 





Not all the sacred scriptures of Hinduism have been 
translated into English. In the translated portions 
the minimum number of pages amounts to 18,098. 


282 APPENDIX 


HINDUISM 
Hopkins, E. W. “The Religions of India.” (Ginn, 
1898.) 
Farquhar, J. N. “A Primer of Hinduism.” (Oxford, 
1912.) 


Farquhar. “The Crown of Hinduism.” (Oxford, 1913.) 

Monier-Williams, Sir M. “Hinduism.” (London, So- 
ciety for Propagating Christian Knowledge, 1911.) 

Monier-Williams, Sir M. “Indian Wisdom.” (Lu- 
zac, 1893.) ) 

Pratt, J. B. “India and Its Faiths.” (Houghton, 
Mifflin, 1915.) 


Iil 
SACRED SCRIPTURES OF JAINISM 


Out of the 33, or 44, or 81 canonical documents there 
are translations of only 4 in two volumes of the “Sacred 
Books of the East”: 


SBE, 22: Acharanga Sutra and Kalpa Sutra. 

SBE, 45: Uttaradhyayana Sutra and Sutrakritanga 
Sutra. 

Hoernle, R. ‘“‘Uvasagadaso, Text and Translation.” 
2vols. (Calcutta, Bibliotheca Indica, 1888-1890.) 

Barnett, L. D. ‘“‘Antagadadaso and Anuttaravovai- 
yadasao.”’ (London, Oriental Translation Fund, 
1907.) 


JAINISM 


Stevenson, Mrs. 8. “The Heart of Jainism.” (Ox- 
ford, 1915.) 
Stevenson, Mrs. S. ‘‘Notes on Modern Jainism with 


APPENDIX 283 


Special Reference to the Svetambara, Digambara 
and Sthanakvasi Sects.” (Oxford, 1910.) 
Buhler, J. G. “On the Indian Sect of the Jains.” 
(London, Luzac, 1903.) 

Jaini, J. “Outlines of Jainism.” (Cambridge, 1916.) 
Hastings. ERE, articles “Ajivakas” and “Jainism.” 


IV 
SACRED SCRIPTURES OF BUDDHISM 


Portions of the Tripitaka have been translated in five 
volumes in the SBE; in two volumes of the “Sacred 
Books of the Buddhists,’ and in five volumes of 
the ‘Pali Text Society Translation Series.” 

Dhamma-pada: Wagiswara, W. D. C. & K. J. Saun- 
ders, ““The Buddha’s Way of Virtue.” (Dutton, 

~1912.) “Wisdom of the East Series.” 

Important non-canonical documents in five volumes of 
the SBE. 

Extensive selections from canonical and non-canonical 
documents in H. C. Warren, “‘ Buddhism in Trans- 
lation,” 1896, in “Harvard Oriental Series.” 

Brief selections from canonical and non-canonical docu- 
ments, in K. J. Saunders, “Heart of Buddhism.” 
(Oxford, 1915.) 


BUDDHISM 


Monier-Williams, Sir Monier. ‘‘ Buddhism in Its Con- 
nection with Brahmanism and Hinduism, and in 
Its Contrast with Christianity.”” (Murray, 1889.) 

Rhys-Davids, T. W. “Buddhism, Being a Sketch of 
the Life and Teachings of Gautama, the Buddha.” 
Ist ed., 1877; revised ed., 1914. (London, Society 
for Propagating Christian Knowledge.) 


284 APPENDIX 


Saunders, K. J. “The Story of Buddhism.” (Oxford, 
1916.) 

Saunders, K. J. “‘Gotama Buddha, a Biography, Based 
on the Canonical Books of the Theravadin.” (As- 
sociation Press, 1920.) 

Saunders, K. J. “Buddhist Ideals, a Study in Com 
parative Religion.”’ (Christian Literature Societ, 
for India, 1912.) 

Saunders, K. J. “Buddhism and Buddhists of South- 
ern Asia.” (Macmillan, 1923.) 


V 


SACRED SCRIPTURES OF SIKHISM 


Granth, “The Book,” or Granth Saheb, “‘The Lord 
Book.” 

Trumpp, Ernst. “The Adi Granth, or Holy Scriptures 
of the Sikhs.” (Triibner, 1877.) 

Macauliffe, M. A. Translations scattered through six 
volumes of “The Sikh Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred 
Writings, and Authors.” (Oxford, 1909.) 


SIKHISM 


Field, Dorothy. “The Religion of the Sikhs.” —(“‘ Wis- 
dom of the East Series,” 1914.) 

Hastings, ERE. Articles: “Granth,” 6 : 389-390; 
“Nanak,” 9 : 181-184; “Sikhs,” 11: 507-511. 
Thapar, Sewaram Singh. “A Critical Study of the 

Life and Teachings of Sri Guru Nanak Dev, the 
Founder of Sikhism.” (Rawalpindi, 1904.) 
Court, Henry. “History of the Sikhs: or Translation 
of the Sikkhan de Raj di Vikhia.”” (Lahore, 1888.) 
Bhai, Walji. ‘Hari Charitra, or Comparison between 
the Ad Granth and the Bible.” (Lodiana, 1893.) 


APPENDIX 285 


VI 


SACRED SCRIPTURES OF CONFUCIANISM 


fostly in Legge, J. “The Chinese Classics: Text, 
Trans., Notes.” 8 vols. (Triibner and Oxford.) 


Tue Frve Ciassics 





‘Shu King, Book of History. 
SBE, 3 : 31-272. 
Legge, ‘‘ Chinese Classics: Text, Trans.’ 2 vols. 
: Old, W. G. (Theosophical Society, 1904.) 
Shi King, Book of Poetry. 
| Legge, ‘‘She King.” (Triibner, 1876.) 
Jennings, W., in Sir John Lubbock’s “Hundred 
Books.” (London, Routledge, 1891.) 
Allen, C. F. R. (Triibner, 1891.) 
Selections in SBE, 3 : 273-446. 
I King, Book of Changes, or Divination. 
SBE, 16 : 1-442. 
Li Ki, Book of Rites. 
SBE, vols. 27 and 28. 
Chun Chiu, Spring and Autumn. 
Legge, “Chinese Classics: Text, Trans.” 2 vols. 


Tue Four Books 


Lun Yu, Analects of Confucius. 
Not translated in SBE. 
Legge, “Chinese Classics: Text, Trans.” (1861.) 
Legge, “‘ Life and Teachings of Confucius.” (1875.) 
Legge, “Chinese Classics.’ (Mifflin, 1882.) 
Legge, ‘‘ Chinese Classics.”” (Alden, 1885.) 


286 APPENDIX 


Soothill, W. E. (Shanghai, Mission Press, 1910.) 
Jennings, W., in Sir John Lubbock’s ‘Hundred 
Books.” (London, Routledge, 1895.) 
Lyall, L. A. (Longmans, 1909.) 
Ku Hung-Ming. (Shanghai, Kelly & Walsh, 1898.) 
Ta Hsio, Great Learning. 
Legge, “Chinese Classics,” vol. 1. 
As Li Ki, chap. 39; SBE, 28 : 411-424. 
Chung Yung, Doctrine of the Mean. 
Legge, “Chinese Classics,”’ vol. 1. 
Ku Hung-Ming, “The Conduct of Life,” in “* Wis- 
dom of the East Series.”” (Murray, 1912.) 
As Li Ki, chap. 28; SBE, 300-329. 
Mencius. 
Legge, “‘Chinese Classics,” vol. 1. 
Legge, “Life and Works of Mencius.” (1875.) 
Faber, “Mind of Mencius.” (Boston, Mifflin, 
1882.) 


A Srxtu “Cuassic” Sometimes RECOGNIZED 


Hsiao King, Book of Filial Piety. 
SBE, 3. 465-488. 
Chen, “Book of Filial Duty” in “Wisdom of 
Kast.” 


CONFUCIANISM 


No single monograph. See chapters in various books. 

Giles, H. A. “Confucianism and Its Rivals.” (1915.) 

Legge. “The Religions of China.’ (Scribners, 
1882.) 

Soothill, W. E. “The Three Religions of China.” 
(1913.) 

Douglas, R. K. ‘Confucianism and Taouism.” (1911.) 


APPENDIX 287 
Vil 


TRANSLATIONS OF THE SACRED 
SCRIPTURES OF TAOISM 


Tue Tao-Tru-Kine 


SBE, 39: 47-124. 

Carus. “Lao-tze’s Tao-Teh-King, Chinese-English.” 
(Chicago, Open Court, 1898.) A new abridged 
edition, “The Canon of Reason and Virtue, Being 
Lao-tze’s Tao-Teh-King,”’ 1913. 

Goddard & Borel. “Lao-tzu’s Tao and Wu-Wei.” 
(New York, Brentano, 1919, pp. 11-53.) 

Giles, Lionel. “Sayings of Lao-tzu.” (Murray, 1917.) 

Parker, E. H. “China and Religion,” pp. 271-301. 
‘(New York, Dutton, 1905.) Also in “Studies in 
Chinese Religion,” pp. 96-131. 


Tuer Tat-SHane Kan-Yine PIEN 


SBE, 40: 235-246, ‘“‘Tractate of Actions and Their 
Retributions.” 

Carus & Suzuki. “Treatise on Response and Retribu- 
tion.” (Chicago, Open Court, 1906.) 

Douglas. “‘Confucianism and Taouism,” pp. 257-271. 

Webster, James. ““Book of Rewards and Punish- 
ments.” (Shanghai, Mission Press.) 

Wieger, L. “Moral Tenets and Customs in China,” 
pp. 245-259. (Ho-Kien, China, 1913.) 


Kwano-lzr, tHE Most Important SUBSIDIARY WorK 


SBE, 39: 127-392; 40: 1-232. 

Giles, H. A. ‘‘Chuang Tzu.” (London, Quaritch, 1889.) 

Giles, L. ‘‘ Musings of a Chinese Mystic” in “‘ Wis- 
~ dom of the East Series.”” (London, Murray, 1911.) 


288 APPENDIX 


TAOISM. 


No single monograph. See chapters in various books. 

Douglas. “‘Confucianism and Taouism,” pp. 173-287. 

Legge, J. “The Religions of China,”’ pp. 157-236. 

DeGroot. “Religion of the Chinese,” pp. 132-162. 

Soothill, W. E. “The Three Religions of China.” 
(1913.) 


Vill 


SACRED SCRIPTURES OF SHINTO 


Ko-ji-ki. “‘Records of Ancient Matters.” 
Chamberlain, B. H. In Transactions of the Asiatic 
Society of Japan. (Tokyo, Supplement to vol. 
10, 1882; reprinted 1906 and 1920.) 


Nihon-gi. “Chronicles of Japan.” 
Aston, W. G. In Transactions and Proceedings of 
the Japan Society. (London, Triibner, 1896.) 


Yengi-shiki. “Institutes of the Period of Yengi.”’ 
Selections from the Nori-to: articles, “Ancient Jap- 
anese Rituals,” in Transactions of the Asiatic 
Society of Japan ; Satow, vol. 7 (1879), pp. 95—- 
126, 393-434; vol. 9 (1881), pp. 183-211; Flor- 
enz, vol. 27 (1899), pp. 1-112. 


Manyo-shiu. “Collection of Ten-Thousand Leaves.” 

Selections by Aston, W. G., in “‘History of Japanese 
Literature,” pp. 36-48; Chamberlain, B. H., in 
**Classical Poetry of the Japanese” (Triibner, 
1880); in “Library of the World’s Best Lit- 
erature,” vol. 14, pp. 8157-8161; in “The 
World’s Great Classics: Oriental Literature, 
Japanese,” vol. 2, pp. 223-267 (New York, 
Colonial Press, 1899.) 


APPENDIX 289 


SHINTO 


Aston, W.G. “Shinto, the Way of the Gods.” (Long- 
mans, 1905.) The best book in this field. 

Aston, W.G. “Shinto, the Ancient Religion of Japan.” 
(“Religions Ancient and Modern Series,”’ 1910.) 
An abridgment of the preceding. 

Knox, G. W. “Development of Religion in Japan,” 
Lecture II, “Shinto, the Way of the Gods: Natural 
Religion.”” (American Lectures on the History 
of Religions, Putnams, 1907.) 

Griffis, W. E. “The Religions of Japan,”’ Lectures IT, 
III, VII. (Scribners, 1912.) 

Satow, Ernest. ‘“‘The Revival of Pure Shin-tau,” in 
Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. II 
(1875), part 1, appendix; reprinted 1883 and 1905. 

Holtom, D. C. “The Political Philosophy of Modern 
Shinto: A Study of the State Religion of Japan,” 
in Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. 
XLIX (1922), part 2, pp. 1-325. 


IX 
SACRED SCRIPTURES OF JUDAISM 


(EASILY Accnssrsian AS THE OLp TESTAMENT OF 
CHRISTIANITY) 


ae I. “The Twenty-four Books of the Holy 
Scriptures, Carefully Translated according to the _ 
Massoretic Text after the Best Jewish Authori- 
ties.” (Cincinnati, Bloch, 1884.) 

“The Holy Scriptures according to the Massoretic 
Text: A New Translation.”? By a committee of 
Jewish scholars. (Philadelphia, Jewish Publication 
Society, 1917.) 





290 APPENDIX 


Kent, C.F. “The Student’s Old Testament,” 5 vols. 
(Seribners, 1904-1914.) 


JUDAISM. 


- Barton, G. A. “The Religion of Israel.” (Macmillan, 
1918.) 
Kohler, K. “Jewish Theology, Systematically and 
Historically Considered.”” (Macmillan, 1918.) 
Peters, J. P. “The Religion of the Hebrews.” (Ginn, 
1914.) 

Smith, H. P. “The Religion of Israel.” (Scribners, 
1914.) 

Fowler, H. T. ‘‘ The Origin and Growth of the Hebrew 
Religion.”” (University of Chicago, 1916.) 


xX 
SACRED SCRIPTURES OF ZOROASTRIANISM 


I. Yasna, “ WorsuHiP”’ oR “SACRIFICE” 


Mills, L. H. “Sacred Books of the East,’’ 31 : 1-332. 
Bleeck, A. H. “Avesta: The Religious Books of the 
Parsees, from Spiegel’s German “Translation.” 
(Hertford, Austin, 1884.) Vol. II, pp. 26-141. 


Gatuas, ““Psaums”’ oF ZoROASTER HIMSELF 
(Constitute seventeen chapters of the Yasna) 


Moulton, J. H. “‘Early Zoroastrianism,” pp. 344-390. 
(Williams & Norgate, 1913.) 

Guthrie, K. 5. “The Hymns of Zoroaster.” (Brook- 
lyn, Comparative Literature Press, 1914.) Trans- 
literated text, translation, dictionary, and con- 
cordance. 


Mills, L. H. SBE, 31: 1-194. 





APPENDIX 291 


Mills, L. H. “The Gathas of Zoroaster in Metre and 
Rhythm.” (Oxford, 1900.) 


II. Visparap, Invocations to “Atu THE LoRDS”’ 


Mills, L. H. SBE, 31 : 333-364. 
Bleeck, A. H. “Spiegel’s Avesta,” 2 : 5-24. 


III. Venpipap, “Law AGAINST THE Demons” 


Darmsteter, J. SBE, 4: 1-240. 
Bleeck, A. H. “Spiegel’s Avesta,” 1 : 1-156. 


The foregoing three main divisions constitute the 
larger and more important part of the Avesta, reserved 
for priests. 


IV. Yasts, “Worsuie Hymns” 


Darmsteter, J. SBE, 23 : 21-345. 
Bleeck, A. H. “Spiegel’s Avesta,” 3 : 21-135. 


VY. Kauorpa Avesta, “Lirrte Avesta’”’ 


Bleeck, A. H. ‘“‘Spiegel’s Avesta,” 3 : 1-192. 


ZOROASTRIANISM 


Jackson, A.V. W. “Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient 
Tran.’ (Macmillan, 1901.) 

Moulton, J. H. “Early Zoroastrianism.” (Williams 
& Norgate, 1913.) 

Moulton, J. H. ‘“‘Early Religious Poetry of Persia.” 
(Cambridge, 1911.) 

Moulton, J. H. “The Treasure of the Magi, a Study 

of Modern Zoroastrianism.” (Oxford, 1917.) 


292 APPENDIX 


Haug, M. “Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings 
and Religion of the Parsis.” (Triibner, 1878.) 

Dhalla, M. N. “Zoroastrian Theology from the Earli- 
est Times to the Present Time.” (New York, 
1914.) 

Guthrie, K. S. “The Life of Zoroaster in the Words 
of His Own Hymns.” (Brooklyn, Comparative 
Literature Press, 1914.) 


XI 


SACRED SCRIPTURES OF ISLAM, OR 
MUHAMMADANISM 


Rodwell, J. M. ‘The Koran,” in “Everyman’s Li- 
brary.’ Rearranges the chapters in probable 
chronological order. Probably the handiest trans- 
lation. 

Palmer, E. H. “The Quran.” SBE, vols. 6 and 9. 
Verse divisions not indicated, except every fifth. 

Ali, Muhammad. “The Holy Quran, Arabic Text, 
Translation, Notes.” (Islamic Review, Woking, 
England, 1917.) Notable reinterpretations by a 
liberally educated, devout Moslem. 

Fadl, Mirza Abul. “The Quran, Arabic Text and 
English Translation.”” (Allahabad, 1911, 2 vols.) 

Sale, George. Many editions since its first appearance 
in 1734; valuable commentary. 


SELECTIONS FROM THE KoRAN 


Stanton, H. U. W., in “Texts for Students Series” 
(London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowl- 
edge. Also New York, Macmillan, 1922.) 

Lane, E. W. (London, Triibner, 1887; Boston, Hough- 
ton, 1879.) 


APPENDIX 293 


Lane-Poole, S. “Speeches and Table-Talk of the 
Prophet Mohammed,” in “Golden Treasury 
Series.”” (London, 1882.) 

Wollaston, A. N. “The Religion of the Koran,”’ in 
“Wisdom of the East Series.”’ (1911.) 


ISLAM, OR MUHAMMADANISM 


Hughes, T. P. “Dictionary of Islam.”” (London, Allen, 
1885.) 

Houtsma, M. T., editor-in-chief. “‘Encyclopedia of 
Islam,” 25 parts. (London, Luzac, 1913-1923.) 

Stanton, H. U. W. “The Teaching of the Qur’an.”’ 
(Macmillan, 1919.) 

Barton, J. L. “The Christian Approach to Islam.” 
(Pilgrim Press, 1918.) 

Hurgronje, C. S. “Mohammedanism.” (Putnams, 
1916.) 

Muir, W. ‘The Life of Mohammad,” one volume. 
(Edinburgh, Grant, 1912.) 

Zwemer, S. M. “Islam.” (New York, Student Vol- 
unteer Movement, 1907.) 

Ali, Ameer. ‘‘The Spirit of Islam.’ (London, Chris- 
tophers, 1922.) 


XU 
- SACRED SCRIPTURES OF CHRISTIANITY 


TRANSLATIONS OF THE BrsLtE Most USED By 
PROTESTANTS 


King James, or Authorized Version. (1611.) 
English Revised Version. (1885.) 
American Revised Version. (1901.) 


294 APPENDIX 


TRANSLATION OF THE BiBLE USED IN THE ROMAN 
CATHOLIC CHURCH 


Douay Bible, translated from Latin translation, the 
Vulgate; Old Testament, first published at Douay, 
1609; New Testament at Rheims, 1582. 


OTHER MopERN TRANSLATIONS 


Rotherham, J. B. “The Emphasized Bible,” 4 vols. 
(Cincinnati, Standard Publ. Co., 1902.) 

American Baptist Publication Society. (Philadelphia, 
1912.) 

Kent, C. F. “The Historical Bible,” 6 vols. (Scrib- 
ners, 1908-1916.) 


SELECTIONS FROM THE BIBLE 


Sherman, H. A., and Kent, C. F. ‘“‘The Children’s 
Bible.”’ (Scribners, 1922.) 

Moulton, R. G. “The Modern Readers’ Bible.”’ 
(Macmillan, 1907.) 

Kent, C. F., Sherman, H. A., and Others. “The 
Shorter Bible.”? (Scribners, 1921.) 


Mopern SpPEcIAL TRANSLATIONS OF New TESTAMENT 


Twenty scholars: “Twentieth Century New Testa- 
ment.” (Revell, 1901.) 

Weymouth, R. F. ‘Modern Speech New Testament.” 
(Baker & Taylor, 1904.) 

Moffatt, J. ‘“‘A New Translation of the New Testa- 
ment.” (Doran, 1913.) 

Ballantine, W. G. ‘“‘The Riverside New Testament.” 
(Houghton, Mifflin, 1923.) 


APPENDIX 295 


Goodspeed, E. J. “‘The New Testament.” An Amer- 
ican translation. (University of Chicago Press, 
1923.) 


CHRISTIANITY 


Clarke, William Newton. ‘‘An Outline of Christian 
Theology.” (Scribners, 1898.) 

Brown, William Adams. ‘‘Christian Theology in Out- 
line.”’ (Scribners, 1906.) 

Smith, G. D., editor. “A Guide to the Study of the 
Christian Religion.” (Chicago University, 1916.) 


QUESTIONS 


What other approaches to the study of religion would 
be profitable besides the nine which are mentioned 
in the first chapter of this book ? 

Which religions are located now chiefly in the land of 
their origin? 

Which religions have spread notably beyond the land 
of their origin ? 

Which religions started with a conscious dependence 
upon, and continuation of, a previous religion? 
In what respects? With what results? 

Which religions started in direct opposition to other 
religions? Inwhatrespects? With what results? 

Which religion was most eclectic, consciously attempt- 
ing to adjust itself to pre-existent religions? In 
what respects? With what results? 

Which five religions started as a conscious attempt to 
improve upon a previous religion? In each case 
what did they retain? What did they change? 

Which religions during the course of their subsequent 
history have been influenced perceptibly by re- 
ligions other than those from which they branched 
off? In what respects? 

Which religions during the course of their subsequent 
history have intermingled with other religions, and 
yet not been influenced thereby? Why not? 
With what results ? 

In which religions has there been a perceptible relapse 
from the ideals of the founder? In what respects? 

In which religions has there been a perceptible advance 
upon the ideals of the founder? In what respects? 

296 


APPENDIX 297 


In which religions has there been conscious attempt at 
self-reformation? By whom? In what respects? 

What advantages and what disadvantages have ac- 
crued to the religions in which sects have arisen ? 

What beliefs taught in the Old Testament are retained 
unchanged in Christianity? Which are rejected 
entirely? Which are modified, and how? What 
is there in the modern application of Christianity 
which is not taught specifically either in the Old 
Testament or in the New? 

What verses in the Bible might be paralleled from other 
sacred. scriptures ? 

What religious truths could a Christian learn from 
other religions which are not expressed or implied 
in Christianity ? 

What customary religious satisfactions would be lost 
to a member of each of the four Hindu castes who 
becomes a Christian? What new religious satis- 
factions would he gain? 

What traditional advantages to the Japanese nation 
as a whole and to any section of it would be lost 
by the adoption of Christianity? What new ad- 
vantages would be gained ? 

Which religion, when a person changes from it to Chris- 
tianity, would require him to make the most 
changes in his religious beliefs and manner of life? 
Which religion would require the least change? 
What is the basis for your answer? 

Which of his inherited religious beliefs would a Con- 
fucianist need to relinquish when he becomes a 
Christian? Which ones would he retain? What 
new ones would he acquire? 

Answer the same three questions in the case of each of 
the other non-Christian religions. 

What personal experiences in the life of Jesus Christ 


298 APPENDIX 


are paralleled in the lives of other founders of re- 
ligions ? 

In what fundamental respects has the character of 
Jesus Christ been surpassed by any of the other 
founders of a religion in the previous twelve cen- 
turies, or in the subsequent fifteen centuries? 

In what fundamental respects might the character of 
the founders of religions other than Christianity 
be improved upon? 

In which religions does the conception of the Supreme 
Being contribute to a rich and helpful personal 
life? In what ways? 

From a sociological point of view, which religions pos- 
sess a concept of the human individual and of hu- 
man society that promotes social progress? What 
is the basis for your answer? 

Which religions would serve as a practical basis for a 
political democracy? Which religions would be in- 
consistent with democracy ? Why do you think so? 

Which essential elements in the various religions have 
produced perceptible results in the civilization of 
the different countries? In what respects? 

How can a personally founded religion remain true to 
the principles of the founder, and yet keep abreast 
of changing conditions? 

Which fundamental religious beliefs help to maintain 
a static type of civilization ? 

Which religions are likely to die? For what reasons? 

What vital elements in any religion serve to keep it 
virile ? 

What are the elements which will enable a religion to 
become fully universal ? 

On what possible basis could another new religion be 


started 2), 
165 


A 





BL80 .H92 
The world’s living religions; an 


on Theological Semin 


iN 


i] 


1 1012 00151 0892 





